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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 May 2025
Bullying (ijime) and school nonattendance (futoko) have been the key ‘behavioural problems’ among students in Japan since the mid-1980s. School nonattendance has been consistently dealt with by the Ministry of Education and Science (MoE), but there have been few systematic efforts to curb bullying by the school administration either at national or local levels. The contrast is clear also at the grassroots level. Unlike school nonattendance, which led to the development of a major social movement in support of futoko students and their parents, bullying has rarely been considered by Japanese citizens to be an issue deserving of coordinated action.
1. The Ministry of Education (Monbusho) changed its name to the Ministry of Education and Science (Monbukagakusho) in 1991. In this text, an acronym of MoE is used to cover both.
2. Wong, So fei (2008) ‘Reframing Futoko (school non-attendance) in Japan – A Social Movement Perspective’ unpublished PhD thesis, University of Adelaide.
3. Kamata, Satoshi (1998) Ijime shakai no kodomotachi [Children in bullying society] Tokyo, Kodansha bunko, pp.215&277.
4. An official survey found that some 40% of primary, 30% of junior secondary and 70% of senior secondary teachers, and about 70% of parents were not aware of the victimisation of their students or children. See the survey through this link (25/08/2008).
5. See for instance, Takekawa, Ikuo (2005) Ijime gensho no saikento: Nichijyo shakai kihan to shudan no shiten [Reexamining ijime phenomenon: the perspective of group and the everyday social norm] Kyoto, Horitsu bunkasha.
6. Yoneyama, Shoko (1999, and 2007 paperback edition through Routledge Paperbacks Direct) The Japanese High School: Silence and Resistance, London & New York, Routledge, pp.157-241.
7. This includes, for instance, Ijimeruna! Yowaimono ijime shakai Nippon [Stop bullying!: Nippon as bullying society of the weak] by Kayama, Rika and Shin, Sugo (2008, Kadokawa one tema 21) and Ijime shakai no kodomotachi [Children in the bullying society] by Kamata, Satoshi (1998, Kodanshabunko). Other books of the similar vain which do not carry ‘bullying society’ in the title include: Anshin no fashisumu: Shihai saretagaru hitobito [Fascism of the easygoing: people who want to be ruled] by Saito, Takao (2004, Iwanami shinsho), and Tomodachi jigoku: ‘Kuki o yomu’ jidai no sabaibaru [Friendship Hell: The survival of the generation which ‘reads the vibes‘] by Doi, Takayoshi (2008, Chikuma shinsho).
8. The blue line in Figure 1 is based on MoE, “‘Jido seito no mondai kodo to seito shido jo no shomondai ni kansuru chosa (Heisei 18 nendo) ‘ni tsuite”, [Regarding the 2006 report on “Survey on issues on teacher guidance regarding problematic behaviour among school students”] Access here. (10/02/2008). MoE has brought into a number of changes to the collection of data on bullying for 2006 statistics onwards. The figure for 2006 includes national and private schools, whereas figures prior to 2006 include public schools only.
9. The red line in Figure 1 is based on 1) ‘Monbukagakusho happyo no kodomo no ijime jisatsusha to kuichigau shimbun hodo sareta ijime jisatsu' [The discrepancy in the number of ijime-suicide reported by the media and the Ministry of Education and Science], Takeda, Sachiko (2004), Anata wa kodomo no inochi to kokoro o mamoremasuka?: Ijime hakusho [Can you protest the life and the soul of children?: The white paper on bullying], Tokyo: Wave shuppan, p.264; and 2) Table 'Kodomo ni kansuru jiken/jiko 1' [Cases and accidents relating to children 1], the website, ‘Nihon no kodomo' [Children in Japan] (by Takeda, S.) (10/02/2008).
10. See for instance, Kamata 1998, Ijime shakai, pp.213-219; Ogi, Naoki (2007) Ijime Mondai to do mukiauka [How to face the problem of bullying] Iwanami Booklet no. 695, pp.43-46, Yoneyama (1999), Silence and Resistance, pp.157-185.
11. See for instance Kayama & Shin (2008), Stop Bullying, pp.60-66. (see note 7 above.)
12. Details are available on the table ‘Kodomo ni kansuru jiken/jiko 1‘ by Takeda above.
13. The 16-year-old student who attacked people on the street in Shinagawa, Tokyo, in January 2008 told the police that he had been bullied at school. See Sankei News article. (28/08/2008).
14. MoE, Jido seito no mondai kodo to seito shidojo no shomondai ni kansuru chosa
[A survey on behavioural problems of pupils and students and issues of student guidance] 2000-2005, available through this website (20/10/2008).
15. Actual names of the victims are being used here in the effort to provide them with the opportunity to ‘voice’ their experience. They have been widely reported in the Japanese media. Japanese names included in the body of the text are given in Japanese style, i.e. family name first, except where the name of the person in English is well established.
16. For details see Yoneyama (1999) Silence and Resistance, pp.157-159.
17. See Yoneyama (1999) Silence and Resistance, especially, pp.177-181.
18. See ‘Kodomo ni kansuru jiken/jiko 1‘ by Takeda above and Ijime Saiban [Ijime trials] special issue (no. 126) of Kikan Kyoikuho, September 2000, Tokyo: Eideru kenkyusho.
19. Mainichi shimbun (2006) ‘“Ijime jisatsu” 16ken atta: Monkasho “zero” happyo no 7nen kan ni‘ [There were 16 cases of ijime-suicide in the 7 years when the MoE reported nil], 4 November. The revised figure as not been published yet as at 17 December 2008.
20. Anonymous teachers of Tokyo (2007) ‘Ima kyoiku genba de naniga okite irunoka‘ [What is happening at schools now?] Sekai, February 2007 (no. 761), p.135.
21. MoE ‘Ijime Mondai e no torikumi no tettei nituite (Tsuchi)‘ [Regarding the total permeation of measures against bullying: a notice] 19 October 2006. Access through this link (17/11/2008).
22. Mainichi Interactive (2006)'Jisatsu yokoku tegami: “Ikiteikunoga tsurai”' [Letter announcing ijime suicide: ‘too hard to live on'] Mainichi Interactive, 07 November (02/12/2006).
23. Left photo: Ibid. Right photo is from Shibui, Tetsuya (2006) ‘Tanrakuteki na kodomo jisatsu no hodo‘ [Simplistic reportage on the suicide of children], Ohmy News (25/08/2008).
24. See note 21 above.
25. Yomiuri Online 19 October 2006 '“Karakai yasukatta” ryoshin to gakkogawa hanashiai de: kyoyu' ['He was an easy target' said the teacher at a meeting with the student's parents] (19/10/2006).
26. Some 80% of bullying among school students in Japan has been reported to be collective (Morita Y., Taki, M., Hata, M., and others (1999) Nihon no ijime [Bullying in Japan], Kaneko shobo, Tokyo, p.41) when the figure is 60-65% in Scandinavia (Olweus, D. (1993) Bullying in Schools, Oxford, Blackwell, p.39) and 40 to 60% in Australia (Rigby, K. (1996) Bullying in Schools, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research, p.39). Moreover, collective bullying in Japan accounts for over 90% of bullying that lasts for more than a week. See Yoneyama, S. & Naito, A. (2003) ‘Problems with the paradigm: the school as a factor in understanding bullying (with special reference to Japan), British Journal of Sociology of Education, 24(3), p.319 for a review on these points.
27. Fujiwara, Tomomi (2006) '“Kuki yomi” to kashita kyoshi tachi' [Teachers who turned to be ‘kuki yomi'], Chuokoron, December, pp.30-31. All translations of Japanese texts included in this article is mine.
28. Amamiya, Karin and Kayano, Toshihito (2008) Ikizurasa ni tsuite: Hinkon, Identity, Naitonalism' [On the sense of ‘hard to live on': Poverty, identity and nationalism', Kobunsha shinsho, p.151.
29. Ibid, p.30.
30. Ibid, p.31.
31. Kagami, Ryuji (2006) 'Seitoha okaruto ni kaserareta “anchi” to shiteno shimei' [A mission to pursue the position of ‘anti' to the traditional occultist], Chuo Koron, December, p.166.
32. See '2007 U-can shingo ryukogo taisho kohogo: Gendaiyogo no kisochishiki' [Nominations for the 2007 U-can prize for new words and buzzwords for Gendaiyogo no kisochishiki]' (23/07/2008).
33. See for instance, ‘Kukiyomi tesuto‘ [Reading-the-vibes test] (27/07/2008).
34. Matsubara, M. ‘SQ no takai kodomo ni sodateru 7tsu no pointo’ [7 points to raise a child with a high SQ], Ikuji no kisoshishiki [Basic knowledge on child rearing: All about] (27/072008).
35. ‘Joshi kokosei no ryakugo, ryukogo‘ [Acronyms and buzzwords used among high-school girls] (24/07/2008).
36. Morita et al. (1999), Nihon no ijime, pp.86&185. (See note 26 above.)
37. Taki, Mitsuru (2001) ‘Relation among bullying, stress and stressor: A follow-up survey using panel data and a comparative survey between Japan and Australia’, Japanese Society 5:25-40.
38. Morita et al. (1999), Nihon no ijime, p.86.
39. Ogi (2007) Ijime Mondai. (See note 10 above.)
40. Taki, Mitsuru (2007) Evidence ni motozuku ijime taisaku [Evidence-based Interventions against bullying] Kokuritsu kyoiku seisaku kenkyujo kiyo [National Institute for educational policy research] no. 136. (01/11/2008).
41. Yoneyama (2003) ‘Problems with the paradigm’, BJSE, pp.315-330. (See note 26 above.)
42. Shoko Yoneyama (in press) ‘What can be done by classroom teachers’, in Esther Ng (ed.) Breaking the Silence: Bullying in Singapore. Harvest Centre for Research Training & Development.
43. See for instance, Yoneyama (1999) Silence and Resistance, especially Chapter 7 ‘Ijime: the price of super-conformity’.
44. Endo, Mika (2008) ‘Futoko to no hajimete no deai‘ [My first encounter with school nonattendance], Horistikku kyoiku nusu [Holistic education news] The newsletter of Japan Holistic Education Society, no. 59, pp.15-18.
45. Unicef, The United Nations Children's Fund (2007) ‘Child poverty in perspective: An overview of child well-being in rich countries’, p.38.
46. Yomiuri Online (2006), ‘Ningenkankei “kihakuni” 80% ‘[80% indicated that human relations became thinner], 12 June 2006, (16/06/2006).
47. Ogi (2007) Ijime Mondai, pp.8-9. (See note 10 above.)
48. For points in this paragraph, see Ogi (2007) Ijime Mondai, pp.8-11.
49. Shin & Kayama (2008) Stop Bullying! p.197. (See note 7 above.)
50. Saito (2004) Anshin no fashizumu, pp.18-20. (See note 7 above.)
51. Saito (2004) Anshin no fashizumu, p.21.
52. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (2008) Heisei 19 nendo kobetsu rodo funso kaiketsu seido shiko jokyo [The implementation of the individual labour conflict solution system: 2007 report], (09/12/2008).
53. Asahi shimbun, 6 October 2008, ‘Anata no anshin‘ [Your sense of security].
54. See examples reported in Pawahara Netto, Power Harassment Net, (09/12/2008).
55. Amamiya & Kayano (2008), Ikizurasa, p.151. (See note 28 above.)
56. Saito (2004) Anshin no fashizumu, pp.158-162.
57. Iwaki, Hideo (2004) Yutori kyoiku kara kosei rohi shakai e [From the pressure-free education to the individual, waste-consumption society] Chikuma shinsho. no.451, p.25.
58. Nikkeiren (Japan Fedeartion of Employers' Associations)(1995), Shinjidai no ‘Nihonteki keiei' ['Japanese management' in the new era], Nikkeiren, p.32.
59. Amamiya & Kayano (2008) Ikizurasa, p.70.
60. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Statistics Bureau, Employee by type of employment, (18/11/2008).
61. Goto, Michio (2008) ‘Workingpoor zodai no zenshi to haikei’ [Historical backgrounds of the increase of the working poor] Sekai, January 2008, p.112-124.
62. Losgene sengen [The lost generation declaration] (19/11/2008).
63. McCormack, Gavan (2007) Client State: Japan in the American Embrace, Verso, p.40.
64. Seikatsu hogo mondai taisaku zenkoku kaigi [National congress to promote countermeasures for livelihood protection], ‘Kokura kitaku gashi jiken‘ [The starvation case in Kokura].
65. TV Asahi, Hodo Station, 'Jakusha kirisute no kakusa kakudai “Yami no Kitakyushu hoshiki” to wa?' [Discarding the weak and expanding the gap: What is the ‘mystery of Kitakyushu method'?] broadcasted on 30 November 2006,(21/11/2008).
66. Saito (2004) Anshin no fashisumu, p.165.
67. The Japan Times editorial, 19 October 2007, ‘Something wrong with the MSDF’.
68. Mainichi shimbun, 23 October 2008, ‘Hiroshima kaijikeitai shibo’ [A death of an officer of the Maritime Self-Defence Force at Hiroshima.]
69. Yomiuri shimbun, 22 October 2008, 'Kakuto kunren shibo “Komusaigai” ninte e' [Death in the fighting training: ‘Accident in duty' to be granted].
70. Asahi.com, 26 November 2008, ‘Kakuto kunren de taiin shibo no kaijikeibitai: Taicho o kotetsu‘ [The Maritime Self-Defence Force where an officer died during fighting training: The captain reassigned.
71. The Japan Times, 8 October 2008, ‘Stablemaster ordered beating: sumo trio’.
72. Sankei shimbun, 7 February 2008, ‘Moto tokitsukaze oayakata ra nin-i doko, kyo taiho e‘ [Former Tokitsukaze statemaster and others asked to accompany the police officer to the police station today, to be arrested].
73. Suportsu Nippon, 18 May 2008, 'Magaki oyakata “kawaiikara” deshi o “kawaigari”' [Magaki master ‘looked after' the young pupil as he ‘cares’ about him].
74. Miyake, Katuhisa (2008) Jiei taiin ga shinde yuku [The Self Defence Officials are dying] Kadensha, Tokyo.
75. The Japan Times, 18 April 2008, ‘High court: ASDF mission to Iraq illegal’, 18 April, (29/07/2008).
76. Martin, Craig (2008) ‘Rule of law comes under fire’, The Japan Times, 3 May 2008. (29/072008).
77. Ibid.
78. See Kojima, Yoshio homepage (31/07/2008).
79. Martin (2008) ‘Rule of the law comes under fire’.
80. Ibid.
81. McCormack (2007) Client State, p.10. (See note 63 above.)
82. See, for instance, MoE (2002-2006) Kyoiku shokuin ni kakawaru chokai shobun to no kyojyo ni tsuite [Regarding disciplinary measures taken to teachers] Table 7 (25/08/2008).
83. Sato, Manabu (2007) ‘Ishihara tosei hachi nen o kenshosuru: kyoiku seisaku‘ [Critical examinations of eight years of Tokyo under Ishihara Administration: educational policies] Sekai, October 2007 (no.757), p.147.
84. Anonymous teachers (2007) ‘What is happening at schools? ‘p.135. (See note 20 above.)
85. MoE (2006), ‘Heisei 17 nendo kyoshokuin ni kakawaru chokai to no jyoko ni tsuite’ [Situations regarding the discipline towards teachers] Table 7 (07/08/2008).
86. Anonymous teachers (2007) ‘What is happening at schools?‘
87. Saito, Takao (2004) '“Hokoku” no bofu ga fukiareru' [A windstorm of ‘serving the nation' howls frightfully] Sekai, April 2004 (no.725), p.85.
88. Watanabe, Atsuko (2007) 'Shitashii shisha tachi no koe o kitete' [Recalling the voices of the beloved dead], in 'Kyoshi to iu shigoto: Watashi wa naze kyoshi o yametaka' [Teachers' work: Why I quit being a teacher], Sekai, June 2007 (no.766), p.142.
89. Hiroshima Heiwa Kyoiku Kenshusho [Hiroshima Institute for Peace Education] (2004) '“Heiwa kyoiku jittai chosa” matome' [Summary of ‘Peace Education Survey'] (07/08/2008).
90. Kyodotsushin (2003) ‘Heiwa karenda tekkyo o shido: Onomichi-shi kyoi ga bunsho haihu‘ [Instruction to remove Peace Calendar: Onomichi City Board of Education distributed a missive] (07/08/2008).
91. The Japan Times, Editorial, 24 September 2006, ‘Right to a minority opinion’, (11/08/2008).
92. Ibid.
93. Ohe, Kenzaburo (2006) ‘Kyoiku no chikara ni matsubeki monodearu: Kaiteian kara ketsuraku shiteiru ikku‘ [It shall depend on the power of education: the phrase missing in the draft proposal for the revision of the Fundamental Law of Education], Sekai, July, no. 754, pp.80-88.
94. See MoE (2006) ‘Kaisei zengo no kyoiku kihonho no hikaku’ [Comparison of the Fundamental Law of Education before and after the revision] (12/08/2008).
95. Prideaux, E. and Nakamura, A. (2006) ‘Education bill shifts power to the state: “Fascist” power grab?‘, Japan Times, 18 November.
96. Ibid.
97. Abe, Shinzo (2006) ‘Stop the ijime: Abe sori kara no messeji' [Stop the ijime: a message from Prime Minister Abe], Kantei Kids Room [The Prime Minister's Official Residence Kids' Room] (13/08/2008)
98. See MoE (2006) ‘Kyoiku shokuin ni kakawaru chokai shobun to no jyokyo ni tsuite (Heisei 17 nendo)‘ [2005 Report on disciplinary punishments towards teachers] (21/02/2008).
99. From 1,001,432 to 919,154 teachers. See above for the source.
100. McCormack (2007), Client State. (See note 63 above.)
101. David Riesman (1961) The Lonely Crowd, Yale University Press.
102. See Yoneyama (1999) Silence and Resistance, p.165. (See note 6 above.)
103. Maruyama, Masao (1948) ‘Nihonjin no seji ishiki‘, in Maruyama Masao shu dai san kan [Volume 3 of the collection of the work by Maruyama Masao] Iwanami Shoten.
104. Erich Fromm (1941, 1960) Fear of Freedom, London, Routledge.
105. Theodor Adorno, B. Aron, M.Levinson, and W.Morrow (1950) The Authoritarian Personality, Harper&Brothers, New York.
106. Laszlo Erving (2006) The Chaos Point: The World at the Crossroads, Hampton Roads publishing, Charlottesville, p.108.
107. Ibid. p.9.
108. Ibid. p.28.
109. Takao, Yasuo (2008) Reinventing Japan: from merchant nation to civic nation, New York, Palgrave Macmillan; Jennifer Chan (2008) Another Japan is Possible: New social movements and global citizenship education, Stanford University Press.
110. Ohe, Kenzaburo (2008) ‘Teigishu’, Asahi Shimbun, 21 October 2008.
111. Sato (2007) ‘Ishihara’, p.147. (See note 83 above.)
112. Gavan McCormack (2008) ‘Facing the past’, Kyungyhang.com, 8 December 2008.
113. MoE (2007) ‘Ijime mondai ni kansuru torikumi jirei shu‘ [The collection of examples of measures against bullying], (19/08/2008), p.46.
114. Ibid. p.109.
115. MoE (1996) ‘Jidoseito no ijime to ni kansuru anketo chosa kekka ni tuite‘ [Results of the survey on bullying and other issues among school students] (media release), (15/07/2008).
116. Ogi (2007) Ijime mondai, p.58-59. (See note 10 above.)
117. MoE (1996) ‘Jidoseito no ijme to ni kansuru anketo chosa’.
118. ‘Culture of Change’ was suggested by Peter K Smith, Goldsmiths College, London University, as the title of one of the panels for ‘Safer South Australian Schools’ conference held in Adelaide on 29-30 June 2006, and organized by the South Australian Department of Education and Children's Services.
119. Saito (2004) Anshin no fashisumu. See note 7 above for details.
120. For instance see Nagata, Yoshiyuki (2007) Alternative Education: Global perspectives relevant to the Asia-Pacific region, Springer-Verlag.
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