No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
The 1911 Revolution and the Frontier: The ‘Political Game’ and ‘State-Building’ in Outer Mongolia during the 1911 Revolution
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 March 2025
Extract
Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Frontier studies have long been a sensitive area for historical research in the PRC, largely because of the demands for increasing autonomy in Tibet and Xinjiang-movements that are regarded as “separatist” by the authorities. This sensitivity makes the study of the 1911 Revolution on the frontier particularly difficult, because it was precisely in 1911 that independence movements manifested themselves in Tibet and Mongolia. Both of these regions had been incorporated into the Qing empire, whose emperors acted as patrons of the Tibetan Buddhism revered by Tibetans and Mongols alike. In Mongolia, the Qing court confirmed the status of Mongols nobles, and intermarried with the families of Mongol princes. But the 1911 Revolution created a secular republic, which made these religious and feudal ties difficult to maintain. More importantly, the revolution was launched with an overtly Han nationalist agenda to “expel the northern barbarians, restore China” that left little political space for the political aspirations of other nationalities. As a result, both Tibet and Outer Mongolia declared independence after the Wuchang Uprising.
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Creative Commons
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited. The written permission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work.- Copyright
- Copyright © The Authors 2014
References
Notes
1 See Yu Fengchun, Zhongguo guomin guojia gouzhu yu guomin tonghe zhi licheng-yi ershi shiji shangbanye dongbei bianjiang minzu guomin jiaoyu weizhu [National state-building and national integration in China-focusing on national education on the northeast frontier in the first half of the 20th century] (Haerbin: Heilongjiang jiaoyu chubanshe, 2006). From the perspective of national state-building, this book explores national education in northeast China in the late Qing and early republic, and notes the difficulties it faced. Other related studies are Li Yuwei, “Beiyang zhengfu de minzu zhengce yu Neimenggu de minzu wenti” [The ethnic policy of the Beiyang government and the ethnic problem in Inner Mongolia], Neimenggu shehui kexue, 2004, no. 2; Zhou Jinghong, “Qingmo minguo shiqi Neimenggu diqu zhengqu guanli tizhi bianqian ji dui Mengguzu de yingxiang” [The transformation of the administration system of Inner Mongolia and its influence on Mongols in the late Qing and early republic] (Zhongyang minzu daxue xuebao, 2004, no. 6); Ma Rong, “Zhonghua minzu de gongtong wenhua yu ‘Huangdi chongbai’ de zuqun xia'ai xing [The common culture of the Chinese nation and the parochialism of Yellow emperor worship], Xibei minzu yanjiu, 2010, no. 2: 6-13.
2 Related studies include Zhang Qixiong, “‘Duli wai Menggu’ de guojia rentong yu zhuquan guishu jiaoshe”[National identity in ‘Independent Outer Mongolia’ and the negotiations over sovereignty] Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan, vol. 20 (1991): 259-291; Huang Xingtao, “Xiandai ‘Zhonghua minzu’ guannian xingcheng de lishi kaocha-jianlun xinhai geming yu Zhonghua minzu rentong zhi guanxi” [A historical examination of the formation of the modern conception of a “Chinese Nation:” the relationship of the 1911 Revolution to the identity of the Chinese nation], Zhejiang shehui kexue, 2002, no. 1: 129-142; Zhang Yong, “Cong ‘shiba xingqi’ dao ‘wuseqi’-Xinhai geming shiqi cong Hanzu guojia dao wuzu gonghe guojia de jianguo moshi zhuanbian” [From the Eighteen-Star Flag to the Five-Color Flag-the transition of nation-building from a Han nationality state to the republic of five nationalities] (Beijing daxue xuebao, 2002, no. 2: 106-114); Hua Guoliang, “Minguo chunian Menggu wanggong dui ‘wuzu gonghe’ zhengce de minzu rentong” [Mongol princes' national identity in relation to “the republic of five nationalities” policy of the early republic], Xuzhou shifan daxue xuebao, 2003, no. 2: 103-106.
3 Feng Jianyong, Xinhai geming yu jindai Zhongguo bianjiang zhengzhi bianqian yanjiu [Study on the 1911 Revolution and the political changes on China's frontier of China] (Haerbin: Heilongjiang jiaoyu chubanshe, 2012), 114.
4 Li Yushu, Wai Menggu zhengjiao zhidu kao [On the political and religious system of Outer Mongolia], (Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo zhuankan, 1962), 419.
5 See Jagchid Sechen, “Wai Menggu de ‘duli’ ‘zizhi’ he ‘chezhi‘” [Independence, autonomy and repealing independence in Outer Mongolia], Zhongguo jindaishi congkan, vol. 4, (1962): 39-142.
6 Joseph W. Esherick, “How the Qing Become China,” in Joseph W. Esherick, Hasan Kayali and Eric Van Young, eds, Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 240.
7 Urgunge Onon and Derrick Pritchatt, Asia's First Modern Revolution: Mongolia Proclaims Its Independence in 1911(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989), 13.
8 Ibid., 12.
9 Mu Duli, “Meng-Hui-Zang yu guohui wenti” [The issue of Mongols, Hui, and Tibetans in Parliament], Unification News, no.5, 1907, 49-50.
10 See Matsumoto Masumi, Zhongguo minzu zhengce zhi yanjiu-yi Qingmo zhi 1945nian de'minzulun' wei zhongxin [Study of China's ethnic policy: focusing on nationality theory from the late Qing dynasty to 1945] (Beijing: Minzu chubanshe, 2003), 56-57.
11 See Yan Gang, “Qingdi xunwei zhaoshu zai Zhonghua minzu tongyi shang de falü yiyi” [The legal significance of the abdication announcement of the Qing emperor to the unification of the Chinese nation], Huanqiu falü pinglun, 2011, no. 5, 23.
12 Wang Zongluo, “Xinhai geming diandi jianwen he duiwo de yingxiang” [The influence on me of bits of knowledge of the 1911 Revolution], Neimenggu xinhai geming shiliao [Historical materials of the 1911Revolution regarding Inner Mongolia] (Huhehot: Neiminggu renmin chubanshe, 1979, 84-85.
13 Quoted in Liu Xuetiao, Qingmo minchu Zhong-Meng zhi fenhe guanxi [Split and unification of China and Mongolia in the late Qing and the early republic] (Taipei: Topical study of Mongolian-Tibetan Committee Series, 2002), 27.
14 “Linshi da Zongtong Yuan Shikai mingling”[Provisional President Yuan Shikai's order], Dongfang zazhi, vol. 8, no. 12, 4.
15 Wu Guanyin, “Wuzu tonghua lun” [Assimilation of five nationalities], Minguo jingshi wenbian [Statecraft articles of the Republic of China] (Beijing: Beijing tushuguan chubanshe, 2006), vol. 1, 511.
16 Jiang Ruqun, ed., Chaoye xintan [New stories in the country] (N.p.: Guanghua bianjishe, 1914), 39. The Gurkha state was taken into British India in 1846, and did not belong to China. The Gurkha people were not a Chinese nationality, but Lu's argument expresses the thought that the republic of five nationalities had its limitations.
17 “Yuan Shikai zhi Zhebuzundanba dianwen” [Telegram from Yuan Shikai to Jebtsundamba]: “Outer Mongolia has belonged to the big family of China for years. The bad situation and the troubled frontier are no reason to break from the Chinese nation…” See Tang Zaili and Tang Zaizhang, Menggu fengyun lu [The controversy over Mongolia], in Lü Yiran, Beiyang zhengfu shiqi de Menggu diqu lishi ziliao [Historical materials on Mongolia during the Beiyang era] (Haerbin: Heilongjiang jiaoyu chubanshe, 1999), 24.
18 Wu Guanyin, “Wuzu tonghua lun,” 499.
19 Ibid., 509.
20 Zhonghua Minguo zhengfu gongbao [The Republic of China gazette], no. 103, August, 21, 1912.
21 Gu Dunrou, Zhongguo yihui shi [A history of Chinese parliament] (Suzhou: Mudu xinzhengtang, 1931): 471-472.
22 Zangwen baihua bao, no.4, April 1913.
23 Zhonghua minguo zhengfu gongbao, no. 750, June, 28, 1914.
24 Confucius 2000. Accessed: March, 8, 2013
25 Chen Hefu ed., Zhongguo xianfa leibian (xia) [Compilation of Chinese constitutions (2)], (Zhongguo shehui chubanshe, 1980), 66-367.
26 Zhonghua Minguo zhengfu gongbao, no. 97, August, 5, 1912.
27 Ibid., August, 6, 1912.
28 Ibid., no. 51, June, 20, 1912.
29 Guo Tingyi, Zhonghua Minguo shishi jiyao [Historical events in the Republic of China] (Taipei: Zhongyang wenwu gongyingshe, 1981), 572-574.
30 The Ministry of Education, “Zhen'an Youjiangjun duli Heilongjiang junwu jian Xunanshi Zhu Zi bao suoxia Meng shexue qingxing you” [General in charge of Heilongjiang defense and envoy Zhu Zi's report on setting up schools in Mongolia) 1915, no. 99), Kumaerlu erlunchun xie ling gongshu dang'an [Olunchun Government Office Documents], Heihe Archives, Helongjiang Province.
31 The Ministry of Education, “Meng-Hui-Zang gequ jiaoyu shixiang liebiao [Educational lists of Mongolia, Hui areas and Tibet], 1915, no. 99)], Kumaerlu erlunchun xie ling gongshu dang'an [Olunchun Government Office Documents], Heihe Archives, Helongjiang Province.
32 “Daili waijiao dachen zhu Beijing gongshi Kuosuoweici dian” [Telegram from Acting Foreign Minister to Korostovetz], (October, 13, 1911, Chen Chunhua, ed., Eguo waijiao wenshu xuanbian - guanyu Menggu wenti [Selected Russia'sdiplomatic documents: Mongolia issues] (Haerbin: Heilongjiang jiaoyu chubanshe, 1991), 12-13.
33 “Zhu Beijing gongshi zhi waijiao dachen jinji baogao”[Urgent report from Beijing ambassador to the foreign minister, June 22 1912, Eguo waijiao wenshu xuanbian, 35.
34 For example the clause, “China could not send army and officials to Outer Mongolia and establish a colony there.”
35 “Neige huiyi jilu – guanyu tong Kulun Hutuketu ji Ka'erka wanggong dijie xieyue wenti ” [Cabinet meeting minutes—the issues regarding treaties with the Khutughtu and Prince of Khalkha], August 15 1912, Eguo waijiao wenshu, 44.
36 Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1998), 33-34.
37 “Neige huiyi jilu,” August 15, 1912, 48.
38 “Dui-Meng tanpan quanquan daibiao zhi waijiao dachen han”[Letter of the plenipotentiary in charge of the negotiations with Mongolia to the foreign minister], Oct 11, 1912, Eguo waijiao wenshu xuanbian, 86.
39 “Dui-Meng tanpan quanquan daibiao zhi waijiao dachen jinji baogao”[Urgent report of the plenipotentiary in charge of the negotiations with Mongolia to the foreign minister, Oct 7 1912, Eguo waijiao wenshu xuanbian, 74.
40 “Dui-Meng tanpan quanquan daibiao zhi waijiao dachen jinji baogao”[Urgent report of the plenipotentiary in charge of the negotiations with Mongolia to the foreign minister, no. 4, Oct 15 1912, Eguo waijiao wenshu xuanbian 95.
41 “Dui-Meng tanpan quanquan daibiao zhi waijiao dachen jinji baogao”[Urgent report of the plenipotentiary in charge of the negotiations with Mongolia to the foreign minister, Oct 7 1912, Eguo waijiao wenshu xuanbian 74.
42 “Zhu Beijing gongshi zhi waijiao dachen jinji baogao [Letter of Ambassador in Beijing to the foreign minister, June 20 1912, Eguo waijiao wenshu xuanbian 35.
43 “Eguo zhu Kulun quanquan daibiao Kuosuoweici zhi gonghan”[Letter of Plenipotentiary in Kulun to Korostovetz], no. 2, January 19. 1913, Transl. by Cai Fenglin, “Riben waijiao wenshu xuanyi - guanyu Zang cang xieyu' [Translation of selected Japanese diplomatic documents: Mongolia and Tibet Treaties], Zhongguo bianjiang shidi yanjiu, 2006, no. 1, 121.
44 Ibid.
45 Ibid.
46 Liu Xuezhao, Qingji minchu Zhong-Meng zhi fenhe guanxi, 33-34.
47 “Zhong-E-Meng sanfang Qiaketu huiyilu (1914.9-1915.3) diliuci huiyilu”[The records of the Kyakhta conference of China, Russia and Mongolia (Sept. 1914 to March. 1915), Record of the sixth meeting], Lü Yiran, Beiyang zhengfu shiqi de Menggu diqu lishi ziliao [Historical Materials of Mongolia during the Beiyang era] (Haerbin: Heilongjiang jiaoyu chubanshe, 1999), 49.
48 Ibid., 53.
49 Ibid., 52.
50 Wang Mingke: Huaxia bianyuan: lishi jiyi yu zuqun rentong [Periphery of China: Historicalmemory and ethnic identity] (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2006), 4.
You have
Access
Open access