Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T13:25:49.156Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The triple-deficit hypothesis in Arabic: Evidence from children with and without dyslexia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 November 2022

Smail Layes Open the ORCID record for Smail Layes [Opens in a new window] ,
Marjolaine Cohen  and
Sietske van Viersen
Smail Layes*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of El-Oued, El Oued, Algeria Centre de Recherches sur les Fonctionnements et Dysfonctionnements Psychologiques, University of Rouen, Rouen, France
Marjolaine Cohen
Affiliation:
Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Sietske van Viersen
Affiliation:
Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Department of Development & Education of Youth in Diverse Societies, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
*
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study investigated the triple-deficit hypothesis in Arabic, a Semitic transparent orthography, among 258 native Arabic children from Grade 3, divided into a typical readers group (n = 204) and a dyslexia group (n = 54). Children were tested on word- and pseudoword-reading accuracy, word-reading fluency, phonological awareness (PA), naming speed (NS), orthographic processing (OP), and nonverbal reasoning ability. The results indicated that all children with dyslexia had either double or triple deficits, and none of them had a single deficit. Children with triple deficits showed lower performance than children with single and no deficits on all the reading measures. They have also lower performance to children with double deficits on word-reading accuracy but comparable scores in word- and pseudoword-reading fluency. In addition, OP was confirmed as an additional independent predictor of word-level reading skills besides PA and NS, while controlling for age and nonverbal intelligence. The classification findings showed that the presence of a triple deficit maximizes the risk of reading failure. These findings support the additive nature of combined deficits in PA, NS, and OP. Moreover, they establish the benefit of including OP as a third deficit, in addition to PA and NS, underlying dyslexia in Arabic.

Keywords

triple-deficit hypothesisorthographic processingphonological awarenessnaming speedArabic orthographyword reading
Type
Original Article
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 43 , Issue 5 , September 2022 , pp. 1165 - 1192
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abu Ahmad, H., Ibrahim, R., & Share, D. L. (2014). Cognitive predictors of early reading ability in Arabic: A longitudinal study from kindergarten to Grade 2. In Saiegh-Haddad, E. & Joshi, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of Arabic literacy (pp. 171–194). Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abu-Rabia, S. (2001). The role of vowels in reading Semitic scripts: Data from Arabic and Hebrew. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 14, 39–59. https://doi:10.1023/A:1008147606320 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al Ghanem, R., & Kearns, D. M. (2015). Orthographic, phonological, and morphological skills and children’s word reading in Arabic: A literature review. Reading Research Quarterly, 50, 83–109. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.84 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Apel, K. (2011). What is orthographic knowledge? Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 42, 592–603. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0085) CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asadi, I. A., Khateb, A., Ibrahim, R., & Taha, H. (2017). How do different cognitive and linguistic variables contribute to reading in Arabic? A cross-sectional study from first to sixth grade. Reading and Writing, 30, 1835–1867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9755-z CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asadi, I. A., & Shany, M. L. (2018). Examining the double-deficit hypothesis in vowelized–transparent Arabic in a national representative sample of Grades 3 and 4. Dyslexia, 24, 234–249. https://doi:10.1002/dys.1594 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badian, N. A. (1997). Dyslexia and the double deficit hypothesis. Annals of Dyslexia, 47, 69–88. http://doi:10.1007/s11881-997-0021-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badian, N. A. (2005). Does a visual-orthographic deficit contribute to reading disability? Annals of Dyslexia, 55, 28–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-005-0003-x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, T. A., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K. (1992). The role of orthographic processing skills on five different reading tasks. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 334–345. https://doi.org/10.2307/747673 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berninger, V. W. (1990). Multiple orthographic codes: Key to alternative instructional methodologies for developing the orthographic-phonological connections underlying word identification. School Psychology Review, 19, 518–533. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1990.12087355 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boudelaa, S., & Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (2010). Aralex: A lexical database for modern standard Arabic. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 481–487. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.2.481 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boudelaa, S., Norris, D., Mahfoudhi, A., & Kinoshita, S. (2019). Transposed letter priming effects and allographic variation in Arabic: Insights from lexical decision and the same–different task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 45, 729–757. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000621 Google ScholarPubMed
Boudelaa, S., Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2020). Matrices of the frequency and similarity of Arabic letters and allographs. Behavioural Research, 52, 1893–1905. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01353-z CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouma, A., Mulder, J., & Lindeboom, J. (1996). Neuropsychologische diagnostiek: Handboek [Neuropsychological assessment: Manual]. Swets & Zeitlinger.Google Scholar
Bowers, P. G., & Newby-Clark, E. (2002). The role of naming speed within a model of reading acquisition. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 15, 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013820421199 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowers, P. G., Sunseth, K., & Golden, J. (1999). The route between rapid naming and reading progress. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0301_2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowers, P. G., & Wolf, M. (1993). Theoretical links among naming speed, precise timing mechanisms, and orthographic skill in dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01026919 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruck, M. (1992). Persistence of dyslexics’ phonological awareness deficits. Developmental Psychology, 28, 874–886. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.874 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caravolas, M., Lervåg, A., Defior, S., Seidlová-Málková, G., & Hulme, C. (2013). Different patterns, but equivalent predictors, of growth in reading in consistent and inconsistent orthographies. Psychological Science, 24, 1398–1407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612473122 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carreiras, M., Perea, M., & Mallouh, R. A. (2012). Priming of abstract letter representations may be universal: The case of Arabic. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19, 685–690. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-012-0260-8 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chetail, F. (2015). Reconsidering the role of orthographic redundancy in visual word recognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 645. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00645 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cho, J. R., & Ji, Y. K. (2011). Cognitive profiles of Korean poor readers. Dyslexia, 17, 312–326. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.439 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Jong, P. F., & van der Leij, A. (1999). Specific contributions of phonological abilities to early reading acquisition: Results from a Dutch latent variable longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 450–476. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.450 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Jong, P. F., & van der Leij, A. (2002). Effects of phonological abilities and linguistic comprehension on the development of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6, 51–77. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0601_03 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De la Calle, A. M., Guzmán-Simón, F., García-Jiménez, E., & Aguilar, M. (2021). Precursors of reading performance and double-and triple-deficit risks in spanish. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 54, 300–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420979960 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deacon, S. H., Benere, J., & Castles, A. (2012). Chicken or egg? Untangling the relationship between orthographic processing skill and reading accuracy. Cognition, 122(1), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.09.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dich, N., & Cohn, A. C. (2013). A review of spelling acquisition: Spelling development as a source of evidence for the psychological reality of the phoneme. Lingua, 133, 213–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2013.04.010 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehri, L. C. (1997). Sight word learning in normal readers and dyslexics. In B. A., Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention (pp. 163–189). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Ehri, L. C. (2017). Orthographic mapping and literacy development revisited. In Cain, K., Compton, D., & Parrila, R. (Eds.), Theories of reading development (pp. 127–145). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eviatar, Z., Ibrahim, R., & Ganayim, D. (2004). Orthography and the hemispheres: Visual and linguistic aspects of letter processing. Neuropsychology, 18, 174–184. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.1.174 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frost, R. (2005). Orthographic systems and skilled word recognition processes in reading. In Snowling, M. J. & Hulme, C. (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 272–295). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757642.ch15 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Papadopoulos, T. C. (2008). Predictors of word decoding and reading fluency across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 566–580. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.566 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gharaibeh, M., Sartawi, A. A., Dodeen, H., & Alzyoudi, M. (2019). Effects of rapid automatized naming and phonological awareness deficits on the reading ability of Arabic-speaking elementary students. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 10, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2019.1585247 Google ScholarPubMed
Ibrahim, R., Eviatar, Z., & Aharon-Peretz, J. (2002). The characteristics of Arabic orthography slow its processing. Neuropsychology, 16, 322–326. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.16.3.322 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khateb, A., Khateb-Abdelgani, M., Taha, H. Y., & Ibrahim, R. (2014) The impact of orthographic connectivity on visual word recognition in Arabic: A cross-sectional study. Reading and Writing, 6, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-014-9499-y Google Scholar
Kirby, J. R., Georgiou, G. K., Martinussen, R., & Parrila, R. (2010). Naming speed and reading: From prediction to instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 45, 341–362. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.3.4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, J. R., Parrila, R. K., & Pfeiffer, S. L. (2003). Naming speed and phonological awareness as predictors of reading development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 453–464. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.453 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landerl, K., Castles, A., & Parrila, R. (2021). Cognitive precursors of reading: A cross-linguistic perspective. Scientific Studies of Reading. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.1983820 Google Scholar
Landerl, K., Freudenthaler, H. H., Heene, M., De Jong, P. F., Desrochers, A., Manolitsis, G., Parrila, R., & Georgiou, G. K. (2019). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming as longitudinal predictors of reading in five alphabetic orthographies with varying degrees of consistency. Scientific Studies of Reading, 23, 220–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2018.1510936 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landerl, K., & Wimmer, H. (2008). Development of word reading fluency and spelling in a consistent orthography: An 8-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 150–161. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.150 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Layes, S., Lalonde, R., & Rebai, M. (2019). Effects of an adaptive phonological training program on reading and phonological processing skills in Arabic-Speaking children with dyslexia. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 35, 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2018.1515049 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Layes, S., Lalonde, R., & Rebai, M. (2020). Mental rotation of pictures, letters and symbols in children with dyslexia: Evidence for stimulus type effect. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 67, 437–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2019.1596227 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Layes, S., Lalonde, R., & Rebaï, M. (2017). Study on morphological awareness and rapid automatized naming through word reading and comprehension in normal and disabled reading Arabic-Speaking children. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 33, 123–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2015.1105763 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marian, V., & Blumenfeld, H. K. (2006). Phonological neighbourhood density guides lexical access in native and non-native language production. Journal of Social & Ecological Boundaries, 2, 5–37.Google Scholar
Maroun, L., Ibrahim, R., & Eviatar, Z (2019) Visual and orthographic processing in Arabic word recognition among dyslexic and typical readers. Writing Systems Research, 11, 142–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/17586801.2020.1764159 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGrath, L. M., Pennington, B. F., Shanahan, M. A., Santerre-Lemmon, L. E., Barnard, H. D., Willcutt, E. G., … & Olson, R. K. (2011). A multiple deficit model of reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Searching for shared cognitive deficits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 547–557. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02346.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, K., Fussenegger, B., Willburger, E., & Landerl, K. (2009). RAN is not a measure of orthographic processing. Evidence from the asymmetric German orthography. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430802631684 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, K., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Bruder, J., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Specific learning disorder: Prevalence and gender differences. PLoS ONE, 9, e103537. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103537 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moura, O., Pereira, M., Alfaiate, C., Fernandes, E., Fernandes, B., Nogueira, S., … Simões, M. R. (2017). Neurocognitive functioning in children with developmental dyslexia and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Multiple deficits and diagnostic accuracy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39, 296–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1225007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nag, S., & Snowling, M. J. (2012). Reading in an Alpha-syllabary: Implications for a language universal theory of learning to read. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16, 404–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2011.576352 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427–452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100431 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, R., Forsberg, H., Wise, B., & Rack, J. (1994). Measurement of word recognition, orthographic, and phonological skills. In Lyon, G. R. (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 243–277). Paul H Brookes Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Pennington, B. F. (2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition, 101, 385–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perfetti, C. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific studies of reading, 11, 357–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430701530730 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. In Vehoeven, L., C. Elbron, & P.Reitsma (Eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189–213). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Protopapas, A., Katopodi, K., Altani, A., & Georgiou, G. K. (2018). Word fluency as a rapid naming task. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22, 248–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2018.1430804 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramus, F., Rosen, S., Dakin, S. C., Day, B. L., Castellote, J. M., White, S., & Frith, U. (2003). Theories of developmental dyslexia: Insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 126, 841–865. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg076 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raven, J. C. (2006). Raven Standard Progressive Matrices: Manual. Harcourt Assessment.Google Scholar
Saiegh-Haddad, E. (2005). Correlates of reading fluency in Arabic diglossic and orthographic factors. Reading and Writing, 18, 559–582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-005-3180-4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saiegh-Haddad, E. (2018). MAWRID: A model of Arabic word reading in development. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51, 454–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219417720460 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saiegh-Haddad, E., & Henkin-Roitfarb, R. (2014). The structure of Arabic language and orthography. In Saiegh-Haddad, E. & Joshi, M. (Eds.), Handbook of Arabic literacy: Insights and perspectives (pp. 3–28). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8545-7_1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saiegh-Haddad, E., & Schiff, R. (2016). The impact of diglossia on voweled and unvoweled word reading in Arabic: A developmental study from childhood to adolescence. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20, 311–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2016.1180526 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saiegh–Haddad, E. (2004). The impact of phonemic and lexical distance on the phonological analysis of words and pseudowords in a diglossic context. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 495–512. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716404001249 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiff, R., & Saiegh-Haddad, E. (2017). When diglossia meets dyslexia: The effect of diglossia on voweled and unvoweled word reading among native Arabic-Speaking dyslexic children. Reading and Writing, 30, 1089–1113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-016-9713-1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiff, R., & Saiegh-Haddad, E. (2018). Development and relationships between phonological awareness, morphological awareness and word reading in spoken and standard Arabic. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 356. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00356 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)00645-2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D. L. (2004). Orthographic learning at a glance: On the time course and developmental onset of self-teaching. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 267–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2004.01.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Share, D. L. (2008). Orthographic learning, phonological recoding, and self-teaching. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 36, 31–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2407(08)00002-5 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D. L., & Bar-On, A. (2018). Learning to read a Semitic abjad: The triplex model of Hebrew reading development. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51, 444–453. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219417718198 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). The science of reading and dyslexia. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 7, 158–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1091-8531(03)00002-8 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanovich, K. E. (1992). Speculations on the causes and consequences of individual differences in early reading acquisition. In Gough, P. B., Ehri, L. C., & Treiman, R. (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 307–342). Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Steacy, L. M., Kirby, J. R., Parrila, R., & Compton, D. L. (2014). Classification of double deficit groups across time: An analysis of group stability from kindergarten to second grade. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 255–273. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1556 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strain, E., & Herdman, C. M. (1999). Imageability effects in word naming: an individual differences analysis. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 53, 347–359. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087322 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tibi, S., Edwards, A. A., Kim, Y. S. G., Schatschneider, C., & Boudelaa, S. (2022). The contributions of letter features to Arabic letter knowledge for Arabic-Speaking kindergartners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.2016769 Google Scholar
Tibi, S., & Kirby, J. R. (2018). Investigating phonological awareness and naming speed as predictors of reading in Arabic. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22, 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2017.1340948 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tibi, S., & Kirby, J. R. (2019). Reading in Arabic: How well does the standard model apply? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62, 993–1014. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_JSLHR-L-18-0193 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torppa, M., Parrila, R., Niemi, P., Lerkkanen, M., Poikkeus, A., & Nurmi, J. (2013). The double deficit hypothesis in the transparent Finnish orthography: A longitudinal study from kindergarten to grade 2. Reading and Writing, 26, 1353–1380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9423-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Boer, M., Georgiou, G. K., & de Jong, P. F. (2016). Naming of short words is (almost) the same as naming of alphanumeric symbols: Evidence from two orthographies. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 144, 152–165. https://doi-org.libproxy.viko.lt/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.11.016 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Gorp, K., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2017). Enhancing decoding efficiency in poor readers via a word identification game. Reading Research Quarterly, 52, 105–123. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.156 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Viersen, S., de Bree, E. H., & de Jong, P. F. (2019). Protective factors and compensation in resolving dyslexia. Scientific Studies of Reading, 23, 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1603543 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Viersen, S., de Bree, E. H., Kroesbergen, E. H., Slot, E. M., & de Jong, P. F. (2015). Risk and protective factors in gifted children with dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 65, 178–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-015-0106-y CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., Hecht, S. A., Barker, T. A., Burgess, S. R., Donahue, J., & Garon, T. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 468–479. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.33.3.468 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.415 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, M., Bowers, P. G., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 387–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940003300409 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziegler, J. C., Bertrand, D., Tóth, D., Csépe, V., Reis, A., Faísca, L., Saine, N., Lyytinen, H., Vaessen, A., & Blomert, L. (2010). Orthographic depth and its impact on universal predictors of reading: a cross-language investigation. Psychological Science, 21, 551–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610363406 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziegler, J. C., Perry, C., & Zorzi, M. (2019). Modeling the variability of developmental dyslexia. In Verhoeven, L., Perfetti, C., & Pugh, K. (Eds.), Developmental dyslexia across languages and writing systems (pp. 350–371). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar