Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T01:30:45.890Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Language proficiency and sociocultural integration of Canadian newcomers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 September 2020

Reza Nakhaie Open the ORCID record for Reza Nakhaie [Opens in a new window]
Reza Nakhaie*
Affiliation:
University of Windsor
*
Address for Correspondence: Reza Nakhaie, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Criminology, University of Windsor, Chrysler Hall South, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, ONN98 3P4Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper evaluates the sociocultural integration of newcomers, paying special attention to language proficiency while taking into account the importance of the assimilation, cultural fit, and social network perspectives. Analyses are based on administrative data collected by the YMCA of South Western Ontario regarding 2,493 of their clients. Results reveal that newcomers’ length of residency, ethnic origin, and social networks play a significant role in the sociocultural integration of newcomers. The longer the newcomers have resided in Canada, the higher their level of sociocultural integration. Non-Europeans displayed a lower level of sociocultural integration than Europeans. However, the most important predictor of sociocultural integration was language proficiency. Not only did language proficiency have a strong and independent effect, but it also tended to level out differences in sociocultural integration of those who had resided in Canada for a short period compared to those living in Canada for a longer period. Similarly, language proficiency decreased sociocultural integration differences between Europeans and ethnic minority newcomers. The policy implications of the results are discussed.

Keywords

cultural fitimmigrantslanguagerefugeessociocultural integration
Type
Original Article
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 41 , Special Issue 6: The Language, Literacy and Social Integration of Refugee Children and Youth , November 2020 , pp. 1437 - 1464
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ager, A., & Strang, A. (2008). Understanding integration: A conceptual framework. Journal of Refugee Studies, 21, 166–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alba, R., & Nee, V. (2003). Remaking American mainstream: Assimilation and contemporary immigration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alesina, A., & Giuliano, P. (2009). Family ties and political participation. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 15415. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w15415Google Scholar
Alesina, A., & La Ferrara, E. (2000). Participation in heterogeneous communities. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115, 847–904.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aydemir, A. (2011). Immigrant selection and short-term labor market outcomes by visa category. Journal of Population Economics, 24, 451–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M.. (2012). The sociology of education . Upper Saddle Rivier, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Banerjee, R. (2008). An examination of factors affecting perception of workplace discrimination. Journal of Labour Research, 29, 380–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banerjee, R., & Phan, M. (2015). Do tied movers get tied down? The occupational displacement of dependent applicant immigrants in Canada. International Journal of Migration and Integration, 16, 333–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bawer, B. (2010). Surrender: Appeasing Islam, sacrificing freedom. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Beiser, M., & Hou, F. (2001). Language acquisition, unemployment and depressive disorder among Southeast Asian refugees: A 10-year study. Social Science and Medicine, 53, 1321–1334.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beiser, M., Noh, S., Hou, F., & Kasper, V. (2001). Southeast Asian refugees’ perceptions of racial discrimination in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 33, 46–70.Google Scholar
Beiser, M., Puente-Duran, S., & Hou, F. (2015). Cultural distance and emotional problems among immigrant and refugee youth in Canada: Findings from the New Canadian Child and Youth Study (NCCYS). International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 49, 33–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46, 5–34.Google Scholar
Bevelander, P., & Pendakur, R. (2014). The labour market integration of refugee and family reunion immigrants: A comparison of outcomes in Canada and Sweden. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 40, 689–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biles, J., Burstein, M., & Frideres, J. (2008). Canadian society: Building inclusive communities. In Biles, J., Burstein, M., & Frideres, J. (Eds.), Immigration and integration in Canada in the twenty-first century (pp. 269–278). Montreal, Quebec: McGill–Queens University Press.Google Scholar
Boyd, M., & Cao, X. (2009). Immigrant language proficiency, earnings, and language policies. Canadian Studies in Population, 36, 63–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, M., & Pikkov, D. (2005). Gendering migration, livelihood and entitlements: Migrant women in Canada and the United States. OPGP Occasional Paper No. 6. Geneva, Swotzerland: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.Google Scholar
Brown, S., Nesse, R., Vinokur, A., & Smith, D. (2003). Providing social support may be more beneficial than receiving it. Psychological Science, 14, 320–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brubaker, R. (2001). The return of assimilation? Changing perspectives on immigration and its sequels in France, Germany, and the United States. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24, 531–548.Google Scholar
Caldwell, C. (2009). Reflections on the revolution in Europe. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Chan, G. (2000). Disposable domestics: Immigrant women workers in the global economy. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar
Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (1992). Language in the immigrant labor market. In Chiswick, B. R. (Ed.), Immigration, language, and ethnicity: Canada and the United States (pp. 229–296). Washington, DC: AEI Press.Google Scholar
Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (1995). The endogeneity between language and earnings: International analyses. Journal of Labor Economics, 13, 246–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (2001). A model of destination-language acquisition: Application to male immigrants in Canada. Demography, 38, 391–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1969). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Cambidge, MA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1994). The earth is round (p <. 05). American Psychologist, 49, 997–1003.Google Scholar
Connor, P. (2010). Contexts of immigrant receptivity and immigrant religious outcomes: The case of Muslims in Western Europe. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33, 376–403.10.1080/01419870902935963CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derwing, T., & Thomson, R. (2005). Citizenship concepts in LINC classrooms. TESL Canada Journal, 23, 44–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Vroome, T., & van Tubergen, F. (2010). The employment experience of refugees in the Netherlands. International Migration Review, 44, 376–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diehl, C., & Koenig, M. (2013). God can wait: Polish and Turkish new immigrants in Germany between early adaptation and religious reorganization. International Migration, 51, 8–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diop, P. (2014). The “bogus” refugee: Roma asylum claimants and discourses of fraud in Canada’s Bill C-31. Refuge: Canada’s Journal of Refugees, 31, 67–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobson, S. (2004). Cultures of exile: An examination of the construction of “refugeeness” in contemporary Norwegian society. Bern: European Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Dorlet, J., & Moorthi, G. (2018). The settlement experiences of Syrian refugees in Alberta: Social connections and interactions. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 50, 101–121.Google Scholar
Dudley, L. (2007). Integrating volunteering into the adult immigrant second language experience. Canadian Modern Language Review, 63, 539–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dustmann, C., & Fabbri, F. (2003). Language proficiency and labour market performance of immigrants in the UK. Economic Journal, 113, 695–717.Google Scholar
Esser, H. (2006). Migration, language and integration. AKI Research Review 4. Retrieved from the Social Science Research Center, Berlin. http://www2000.wzb.edu/alt/publications.en/htmGoogle Scholar
Fazel, M., & Stein, A. (2003). Mental health of refugee children: Comparative study. British Medical Journal, 327, 134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleras, A., & Kunz, J. (2001). Media and minorities: Representing diversity in a multicultural Canada. London: Thompson Educational Press.Google Scholar
Foner, N., & Alba, R. (2008). Immigrant religion in the US and Western Europe: Bridge or barrier to inclusion. International Migration Review, 42, 360–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gans, H. (1973). Symbolic ethnicity: The future of ethnic groups and cultures in America. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2, 1–20.Google Scholar
Gellner, E. (1997). The Turkish option in comparative perspective. In Bozdogan, S. & Kasaba, R. (Eds.), Rethinking modernity and national identity in Turkey (pp. 90–114). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Giddens, A. (1979). Central problems in social theory. New York: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gidengil, E., Blais, A., Nevitte, N., & Nadeau, R. (2004). Citizens. Vanciuver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Gilles, G., & Li, X. (2011). Canadian immigrants’ access to a first job in their intended occupation. International Migration and Integration, 12, 275–303.Google Scholar
Gordon, M. (1964). Assimilation in American life: The role of race, religion, and national origins. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Guo, Y. (2011). Language policies and programs for adult immigrants in Canada: A critical analysis. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 45, 23–41.Google Scholar
Hamid, S. (2016). Islamic exceptionalism: How the struggle over Islam is reshaping the world. New York: St. Martin’s Press.Google Scholar
Henry, F., & Tator, C. (2005). The colour of democracy: Racism in Canadian society. Scarborough, ON: Nelson Education.Google Scholar
Hou, F., & Beiser, M. (2006). Learning the language of a new country: A ten-year study of English acquisition of South-East Asian refugees in Canada. International Migration, 44, 135–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huntington, S. (1996). The clash of civilization and the remaking of the world order. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Jackson, S., & Bauder, H. (2013). Neither temporary, nor permanent: The precarious employment experiences of refugee claimants in Canada. Journal of Refugee Studies, 27, 360–381.Google Scholar
Jiwani, Y. (2006). Discourses of denial: Mediations of race, gender and violence. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Joppke, C. (2004). The retreat of multiculturalism in the liberal state: Theory and policy. British Journal of Sociology, 55, 237–257.Google ScholarPubMed
Joppke, C. (2014). Europe and Islam: Alarmists, victims, and integration by law. West European Politics, 37, 1314–1335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalbach, M., & Brooke, S. (2005). Language effects on ethnic identity in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 3–18.Google Scholar
Kanas, A., & van Tubergen, F. (2009). The impact of origin and host country schooling on the economic performance of immigrants. Social Forces, 88, 893–915.Google Scholar
Karim, K. (2008). Press, public sphere and multiculturalism: Measuring debates in English-language newspapers. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 40, 57–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karunakara, U. K., Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Singh, K., Hill, K., Elbert, T., & Burnha, G. (2004). Traumatic events and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder amongst Sudanese nationals, refugees and Ugandans in the West Nile. African Health Sciences, 4, 83–93.Google ScholarPubMed
Kazemipur, A. (2014). The Muslim question in Canada: A story of segmented integration. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.Google Scholar
Kazemipur, A., & Halli, S. (2000). The colour of poverty: A study of poverty of ethnic and immigrant groups in Canada. International Migration, 38, 69–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kazemipur, A., & Nakhaie, R. (2014). The economics of attachment: Making a case for relational approach to immigrants’ integration in Canada. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 15, 609–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krahn, H., Derwing, T., Mulder, M., & Wilkinson, L. (2000). Educated and underemployed: Refugee Integration into the Canadian labour market. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 1, 59–84.Google Scholar
Lamba, N. (2003). The employment experiences of Canadian refugees: Measuring the impact of human capital and social capital on quality employment. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 40, 45–64.Google Scholar
Laroche, M., Chankon, K., Hui, M., & Tomiuk, M. (1998). Test of a nonlinear relationship between linguistic acculturation and ethnic identification. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 29, 418–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leszczensky, L. (2013). Do national identification and interethnic friendships affect one another? A longitudinal test with adolescents of Turkish origin in Germany. Social Science Research, 42, 775–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, P. (2003). Deconstructing Canada’s discourse of immigrant integration. PCERII Working Paper No. WP04-03. Retrieved from the Prairie Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Integration. http://wwww.urban-centre.utoronto.ca/pdfs/elibrary/Cda-Discourse-Immigrant-Int.pdfCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logan, J. R., Darrah, J., & Oh, S. (2012). The impact of race and ethnicity, immigration and political context on participation in American electoral politics. Social Forces, 90, 993–1022.10.1093/sf/sor024CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lundborg, P. (2013). Refugees’ employment integration in Sweden: Cultural distance and labor market performance. Review of International Economics, 21, 219–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahtani, M. (2008). How are immigrants seen—And what do they want to see? Contemporary research on the representation of immigrants in the Canadian English-language media. In Biles, J., Burstein, M., & Frideres, J. (Eds.), Immigration and Integration in Canada in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 231–252). Montreal, Quebec: McGill–Queens University Press.Google Scholar
Makwarimba, E., Stewart, M., Simich, L., Makumbe, K., Shizha, E., & Anderson, S. (2013). Sudanese and Somali refugees in Canada: Social support needs and preferences. International Migration, 51, 106–119.Google Scholar
Maliepaard, M., Lubbers, M., & Gijsberts, M. (2010). Generational differences in ethnic and religious attachment and their interrelation. A study among Muslim minorities in the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33, 451–472.Google Scholar
Maliepaard, M., & Phalet, K. (2012). Social integration and religious identity expression among Dutch Muslims. The role of minority and majority group contact. Social Psychology Quarterly, 75, 131–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manpower Immigration Canada. (1974). The immigration program. Ottawa, ON: Information Canada.Google Scholar
McAllister, I. (1986). Speaking the language: Language maintenance and English proficiency among immigrant youth in Australia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 9, 24–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAndrew, S., & Voas, D. (2014). Immigrant generation, religiosity, and civic engagement in Britain. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 37, 99–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mesch, G. S. (2003). Language proficiency among new immigrants: The role of human capital and societal conditions. The case of immigrants from the FSU in Israel. Sociological Perspectives, 46, 41–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (1994). Class, gender and ethnic income inequalities in Canada 1973–1984. Review of Radical Political Economics, 1, 26–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (2006). A comparison of the earnings of the Canadian native-born and immigrants, 2001. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 19–46.Google Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (2007). Ethno-racial origins, social capital and income inequality. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 8, 307–325.Google Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (2008). Social capital and political participation. Canadian Journal of Political Sciences, 41, 835–860.Google Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (2015). Economic benefits of self-employment for Canadian immigrants. Canadian Review of Sociology, 4, 377–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (2017). Sociocultural adjustment of refugees and immigrants. Canadian Diversity, 14, 25–28.Google Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (2018a). Muslims, socio-cultural integration, pride in Canadian democracy. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 50, 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R. (2018b). Service needs of immigrants and refugees. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 19, 143–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R., & Kazemipur, A. (2013). Social capital, employment and occupational status. International Journal of Migration & Integration, 14, 419–437.Google Scholar
Nakhaie, M. R., & Wijesingha, R. (2014). Discrimination and health of male and female Canadian immigrants. International Migration and Integration, 16, 1255–1272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nandi, A., & Platt, L. (2015). Patterns of minority and majority identification in a multicultural society. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38, 2615–2634.Google Scholar
Oreopoulos, P. (2011). Why do skilled immigrants struggle in the labour market? A field experiment with thirteen thousand resumes. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 3, 148–71.Google Scholar
Park, R., & Burgess, E. (1921). Introduction to the science of sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Parsons, T. (1968). The structure of social action. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Platt, L. (2014). Is there assimilation in minority groups national, ethnic and religious identity? Ethnic and Racial Studies, 37, 46–70.Google Scholar
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Remnick, L. (2004). Language acquisition, ethnicity and social integration among former Soviet immigrants of the 1990s in Israel. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 27, 431–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salgado, L., & Silva, I. (2018). “I believe people need to know us in order to integrate us”: Immigrant women’s cultural attitudes and needs. International Migration & Integration, 19, 451–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schacter, A. (2016). From “different” to “similar”: An experimental approach to understanding assimilation. American Sociological Review, 81, 981–1013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiefer, D., Mollering, A., & Daniel, E. (2012). Cultural value fit of immigrant and minority adolescents: The role of acculturation orientations. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, 486–497.Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. H. (2014). Rethinking the concept and measurement of societal culture in light of empirical findings. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 5–13.Google Scholar
Scott, K., Selbee, K., & Reed, P. (2006). Making connections: Social and civic engagement among Canadian immigrants. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Council on Social Development.Google Scholar
Searle, W., & Ward, C. (1990). The prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transition. International Journal of Intercultural Transitions, 14, 449–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Service, E., & Clark, F. (1993). Differences between young and older adults in learning a foreign language. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 608–623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shibutani, T., & Kwan, K. (1965). Ethnic stratification: A comparative approach. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sides, J., & Gross, K. (2013). Stereotypes of Muslims and support for the war on terror. Journal of Politics, 75, 583–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simich, L., Beiser, M., & Mawani, F. (2002). Paved with good intention: Canada’s refugee destining policy and paths of secondary migration. Canadian Public Policy, 28, 597–607.10.2307/3552217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Statham, P., & Tillie, J. (2016). Muslims in their European societies of settlement: A comparative agenda for empirical research on socio-cultural integration across countries and groups. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42, 177–196.Google Scholar
Stevens, G. (1999). Age at immigration and second language proficiency among foreign born adults. Language and Society, 28, 555–578.Google Scholar
Stewart, M., Anderson, J., Beiser, M., Mwakarimba, E., Neufeld, A., Simich, L., & Spitzer, D. (2008). Multicultural meanings of social support among immigrants and refugees. International Migration, 46, 123–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoffman, D. (2002). Who gets in. Toronto, ON: Macfarlane, Walter, & Ross.Google Scholar
Strang, A., & Ager, A. (2010). Refugee integration: Emerging trends and remaining agendas. Journal of Refugee Studies, 23, 589–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sundeen, R. A., Garcia, C., & Wang, L. (2007). Volunteer behavior among Asian American groups. Journal of Asian American Studies, 10, 243–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thobani, S. (2003). War and the politics of Truth-making in Canada. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 16, 399–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support process: Where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 53–79.Google Scholar
Uslaner, E. M., & Conley, R. (2003). Civic engagement and particularized trust: The ties that bind people to their ethnic community. American Politics Research, 31, 331–360.Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, F. (1994). To volunteer or not: Canada, 1987. Canadian Journal of Economics, 27, 813–825.Google Scholar
Valenta, M., & Bunar, H. (2010). State assisted integration: Refugee integration policies in Scandinavian welfare states: The Swedish and Norwegian experience. Journal of Refugee Studies, 23, 463–483.Google Scholar
Vang, Z., & Chang, Y. (2019). Immigrants’ experiences of everyday discrimination in Canada: Unpacking the contributions of assimilation, race, and early socialization. International Migration Review, 53, 527–540Google Scholar
Wang, L., & Handy, F. (2014). Religious and secular voluntary participation by immigrants in Canada: How trust and social networks affect decision to participate. Voluntas, 25, 1559–1582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). The psychology of culture shock (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1993). Where’s the “culture” in cross-cultural transition? Comparative studies of sojourner adjustment. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 221–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1999). The measurement of sociocultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23, 659–677.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warner, W. L., & Srole, L. (1945). The social systems of American ethnic groups. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Waxman, P. (2001). The economic adjustment of recently arrived Bosnian, Afghan and Iraqi refugees in Sydney, Australia. International Migration Review, 35, 472–505.Google Scholar
Wiley, N. (1967). The ethnic mobility trap and stratification theory. Social Problems, 15, 147–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, L. (2013). Introduction: Developing and testing a generalised model of immigrant integration. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 3, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, L., & Tezli, A. (2013). Measuring social, cultural, and civic integration in Canada: The creation of an index and some application. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 45, 9–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, M., Johnston, R., Citrin, J., & Soroka, S. (2017). Multiculturalism and Muslim accommodation: Policy and predisposition across three political contexts. Comparative Political Studies, 50, 102–132.Google Scholar
Wu, Z., & Schimmele, C. M. (2004). Immigrant status and unmet health care needs in British Columbia. Research on Immigration and Integration in the Metropolis: Working Paper Series 4–18. Vancouver, BC: Vancouver Centre of Excellence.Google Scholar
Yeh, C. J. (2003). Age, acculturation, cultural adjustment, and mental health symptoms of Chinese, Korean, and Japanese immigrant youths. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9, 34–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yu, S., Ouellet, E., & Warmington, A. (2007). Refugee integration in Canada: A survey of empirical evidence and existing services. Refuge: Canada’s Journal of Refugees, 24, 17–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, M., & Bankston, L. (1994). Social capital and adaptation of the second generation: The case of Vietnamese youth in New Orleans. International Migration Review, 28, 821–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar