Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T05:51:16.042Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

An invited article: Phonological recoding and reading acquisition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2008

Anthony F. Jorm*
Affiliation:
Deakin University
David L. Share
Affiliation:
Deakin University
*
A. F. Jorm, Cognitive Psychology Research Group, Deakin University, Victoria, 3217, Australia.

Abstract

Phonological recoding is commonly viewed as a back-up mechanism when word identification using the visual pathway fails. A second more important role for phonological recoding is as a self-teaching mechanism by which the child learns to identify words visually. Although phonological recoding may play a minor role in skilled adult reading, it plays a critical role in helping the child become a skilled reader. This article reviews the evidence relevant to these issues. The first section examines evidence on the role of phonological recoding in the development of word identification skills and reading comprehension. The next section reviews evidence showing that children with reading disabilities often have deficits in basic phonological processing skills. The third section deals with the nature of the reading problem in such children which, it is argued, is consistent with the proposed developmental analysis of the importance of phonological recoding in learning to read. The article concludes with a discussion of the teaching implications of these conclusions.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1983

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Alegria, J., Pignot, E., & Morais, J.Phonetic analysis of speech and memory codes in beginning readers. Memory and Cognition, 1982, 10, 451456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, S.Phonological receding: Is the regularity effect consistent? Memory and Cognition, 1982, 10, 565575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D.The psychology of memory. New York: Basic Books, 1976.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D.The trouble with levels: A reexamination of Craik and Lockhart’s framework for memory research. Psychological Review, 1978, 85, 139152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. Working memory and reading. In Kolers, P. A., Wrolstad, M., & Bouma, H. (Eds.), Processing of visible language. Vol. 1. New York: Plenum Publishing Corp., 1979.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., Thomson, N., & Buchanan, M.Word length and the structure of short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1975, 14, 575589.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakker, D. J.Temporal order in disturbed reading. Rotterdam: Rotterdam University Press. 1972.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, J.Phonemic stage not necessary for reading. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973, 25, 12411246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, J. Mechanisms for pronouncing printed words: Use and acquisition. In LaBerge, D. & Samuels, S. J. (Eds.), Basic processes in reading. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.Google Scholar
Baron, J., & Strawson, C.Use of orthographic and word-specific knowledge in reading words aloud. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1976, 2, 386393.Google Scholar
Baron, J. & Treiman, R. Use of orthography in reading and learning to read. In Kavanaugh, J. F. & Venezky, R. L. (Eds.), Orthography, reading, and dyslexia. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Baron, J., Treiman, R., Wilf, J. F., & Kellman, P. Spelling and reading by rules. In Frith, U. (Ed.), Cognitive processes in spelling. London: Academic Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Barron, R. W., & Baron, J.How children get meaning from printed words. Child Development, 1977, 48, 587594.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, I. L. Reading problems and instructional practices. In Mackinnon, G. E. & Waller, T. G. (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice. Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Beck, I. L., & McCaslin, E. S.An analysis of dimensions that affect the development of code-breaking ability in eight beginning reading programs. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research and Development Center, 1978.Google Scholar
Berry, C. W.Advanced frequency information and verbal response times. Psychonomic Science, 1971, 23, 151152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bias, R. G., McCusker, L. X., & Hillinger, M. L.Generation(s) of phonological codes in reading: A reply to Guttentag. Psychological Bulletin, 1982, 91, 369371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biemiller, A., & Bowden, J. Predicting reading achievement from picture identification times. Paper presented at the Convention of the Ontario Educational Research Council, Toronto, 1977.Google Scholar
Bond, G. L., & Dykstra, R.The cooperative research program in first grade reading instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 1967, 2, 5142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E.Difficulties in auditory organisation as a possible cause of reading backwardness. Nature, 1978, 277, 746747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, J., & Rosen, J. J.Auditory phonemic perception in dyslexia: Categorical identification and discrimination of stop consonants. Brain and Language, 1980, 9, 324337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budoff, M., & Quinlan, D.Reading progress as related to efficiency of visual and aural learning in the primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1964, 55, 247252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, B.Reading disability, linguistic access and short-term memory: Comments prompted by Jorm’s review of developmental dyslexia. Australian Journal of Psychology, 1981, 33, 8395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, B., & Shea, P.Semantic and phonetic memory codes in beginning readers. Memory and Cognition, 1979, 7, 333338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calfee, R. C., Lindamood, P., & Lindamood, C.Acoustic-phonetic skills and reading: Kindergarten through twelfth grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1973, 64, 293298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Case, R., Kurland, M., & Goldberg, J.Operational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1982, 33, 386404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chall, J. S.Learning to read: The great debate. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.Google Scholar
Chall, J. S. The great debate: Ten years later, with a modest proposal for reading stages. In Resnick, L. B. & Weaver, P. A. (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading, Vol. 1. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979.Google Scholar
Chang, F. R.Active memory processes in visual sentence comprehension: Clause effects and pronominal reference. Memory and Cognition, 1980, 8, 5864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chasnoff, R. E.Comparison of the initial teaching alphabet in first-grade reading. Report No. CRP-S-210. Newark, N.J.: Newark State College Union, 1965.Google Scholar
Cole, L.The elementary school subjects. New York: Rinehart, 1947.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. Lexical access in simple reading tasks. In Underwood, G. (Ed.), Strategies of information processing. London: Academic Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. Reading, phonological encoding and deep dyslexia. In Coltheart, M., Patterson, K., & Marshall, J. C. (Eds.), Deep dyslexia. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980.Google Scholar
Condry, S. M., McMahon-Rideout, M., & Levy, A. A.A developmental investigation of selective attention to graphic, phonetic and semantic information in words. Perception and Psychophysics, 1979, 25, 8894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corkin, S.Serial-ordering deficits in inferior readers. Neuropsychologia, 1974, 12, 347354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davelaar, E., Coltheart, M., Besner, D., & Jonasson, J. T.Phonological recoding and lexical access. Memory and Cognition, 1978, 6, 391402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dempster, F. N.Memory span: Sources of individual and developmental differences. Psychological Bulletin, 1981, 89, 63100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G.Rapid ‘automatized’ naming (R.A.N.): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disorders. Neuropsychologia, 1976, 14, 471479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denckla, M. B., Rudel, R. G., & Broman, M.Tests that discriminate between dyslexic and other learning-disabled boys. Brain and Language, 1981, 13, 118129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doctor, E. A. Studies of reading comprehension in children and adults. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Birkbeck College, University of London, 1978.Google Scholar
Doctor, E. A., & Coltheart, M.Children’s use of phonological encoding when reading for meaning. Memory and Cognition. 1980, 8, 195209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dolch, E. W.A manual for remedial reading. Champaign, Ill.: Garrard Press, 1948.Google Scholar
Done, D. J., & Miles, T. R. Learning, memory, and dyslexia. In Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E., & Sykes, R. N. (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory. London: Academic Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Dorval, B., Wallach, L., & Wallach, M. A.Field evaluation of a tutorial program emphasizing phoneme identification skills. The Reading Teacher, 1978, 31, 784790.Google Scholar
Downing, J. A. Research report on the British experiment with ITA. In Downing, J. A. (Ed.), The ITA symposium. Slough, Buckinghamshire: National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales, 1966.Google Scholar
Dykstra, R.The effectiveness of code- and meaning-emphasis beginning reading programs. Reading Teacher, 1968, 22, 1723.Google Scholar
Edfelt, A. W.Silent speech and silent reading. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1959.Google Scholar
Ehri, L. C., & Wilce, L. S.The influence of orthography on readers’ conceptualization of the phonemic structure of words. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1980, 1, 371385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eimas, P. D., Siqueland, E. R., Jusczyk, P., & Vigorito, J.Speech perception in infants. Science, 1971, 171, 303306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elkonin, D. B. U.S.S.R. In Downing, J. (Ed.), Comparative reading. New York: Macmillan, 1973.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Miles, T. R. Visual information processing in dyslexic children. In Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E., & Sykes, R. N. (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory. London: Academic Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Firth, I. Components of reading disability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New South Wales, 1972.Google Scholar
Fox, B., & Routh, D. K.Analyzing spoken language into words, syllables, and phonemes: A developmental study. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 1975, 4, 331342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, B., & Routh, D. K.Phonemic analysis and synthesis as word-attack skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1976, 68, 7074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gascon, G., & Goodglass, H.Reading retardation and the information content of stimuli in paired associate learning. Cortex, 1970, 6, 417429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, E. J., & Levin, H.The psychology of reading. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1975.Google Scholar
Glanzer, M., & Ehrenreich, S. L.Structure and search of the internal lexicon. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 1979, 18, 381398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleitman, L. R., & Rozin, P. The structure and acquisition of reading I: Relations between orthographies and the structure of language. In Reber, A. S. & Scarborough, D. L., (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading: The proceedings of the CUNY conference. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.Google Scholar
Glushko, R. J.The organization and activation of orthographic knowledge in reading aloud. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1979, 5, 674691.Google Scholar
Godfrey, J. J., Syndal-Lasky, A. K., Millay, K. K., & Knox, C. M.Performance of dyslexies on speech perception tests. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1981, 32, 401424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, K.Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 1967, 6, 126136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goyen, J. D., & Lyle, J. G.Effect of incentives upon retarded and normal readers on a visual-associative learning task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1971, 11, 274280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guthrie, J. T.Reading comprehension and syntactic responses in good and poor readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1973, 65, 294299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guthrie, J. T., Samuels, S. J., Martuza, V., Seifert, M., Tyler, S. J., & Edwall, G.A study of the locus and nature of reading problems in the elementary school, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education, 1976.Google Scholar
Hall, J. W., Ewing, A., Tinzmann, M. B., & Wilson, K. P.Phonetic coding in dyslexies and normal readers. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1981, 17, 177178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helfgott, J. A.Phonemic segmentation and blending skills of kindergarten children: Implications for beginning reading acquisition. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1976, 1, 157169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hier, D. B., Le May, M., Rosenberger, P. B., & Perlo, V. P.Developmental dyslexia: Evidence for a subgroup with a reversal of cerebral asymmetry. Archives of Neurology. 1978, 35, 9092.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, M. D., & McClelland, J. L.Processing determinants of reading speed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1979, 108, 151181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jansky, J., & de Hirsch, K.Preventing reading failure. New York: Harper & Row, 1972.Google Scholar
Jeffrey, W. E., & Samuels, S. J.The effect of method of training on initial reading and transfer. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1967, 6, 354358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, J. R., Bausell, R. B., & Jenkins, L. M.Comparisons of letter name and letter sound training as transfer variables. American Educational Research Journal, 1972, 9, 7586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A. F.The effect of word imagery on reading performance as a function of reader ability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1977, 69, 4654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A. F.Reading processes in dyslexia. Collected Original Resources in Education, 1978, 2, Fiche 9F12.Google Scholar
Jorm, A. F.The nature of the reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: A reply to Ellis. Cognition, 1979, 7, 421433.(a)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A. F.The cognitive and neurological basis of developmental dyslexia: A theoretical framework and review. Cognition, 1979, 7, 1933.(b)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A. F.Children with reading and spelling retardation: Functioning of whole-word and correspondence-rule mechanisms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1981, 22, 171178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A. F.The psychology of reading and spelling disabilities. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983.Google Scholar
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A.Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 1978, 85, 363394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleiman, G. M.Speech receding in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1975, 14, 323339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, B. A.Reading: Speech and meaning processes. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1977, 16, 623638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, B. A. Speech processing during reading. In Lesgold, A. M., Pellegrino, J. N., Fokkema, S. D., & Glaser, R. (Eds.), Cognitive psychology and instruction. New York: Plenum, 1978.(a)Google Scholar
Levy, B. A.Speech analysis during sentence processing: Reading versus listening. Visible Language, 1978, 12, 81101.(b)Google Scholar
Liberman, A. M., Cooper, F. S., Shankweiler, D., & Studdert-Kennedy, M.Perception of the speech code. Psychological Review, 1967, 74, 431461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liberman, I. Y., Liberman, A. M., Mattingly, I., & Shankweiler, D. Orthography and the beginning reader. In Kavanagh, J. T., & Venezky, R. L. (Eds.), Orthography, reading and dyslexia. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Liberman, I. Y., & Mann, V. A. Should reading instruction and remediation vary with the sex of the child? Paper presented at a symposium on The Significance of Sex Differences in Dyslexia, Boston, 1980.Google Scholar
Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Fischer, F. W., & Carter, B.Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1974, 18, 201212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Liberman, A. M., Fowler, C., & Fischer, F. W. Phonetic segmentation and recoding in the beginning reader. In Reber, A. S. & Scarborough, D. L. (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading: The proceedings of the CUNY conference. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.Google Scholar
Liu, S. S. Decoding and comprehension in reading Chinese. In Feitelson, D. (Ed.), Cross cultural perspectives on reading and reading research. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association, 1978.Google Scholar
Lundberg, I., Olofsson, A., & Wall, S.Reading and spelling skills in the first school years predicted from phonemic awareness skills in kindergarten. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 1980, 21, 159173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackworth, J. F.Some models of the reading process: Learners and skilled readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 1972, 7, 701733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, V. A., Liberman, I. Y., & Shankweiler, D.Children’s memory for sentences and word strings in relation to reading ability. Memory and Cognition, 1980, 8, 329335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mark, L. S., Shankweiler, D., Liberman, I. Y., & Fowler, C. A.Phonetic receding and reading difficulty in beginning readers. Memory and Cognition, 1977, 5, 623629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, I. G. Reading, the linguistic process, and linguistic awareness. In Kavanagh, J. F. & Mattingly, I. G. (Eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationship between speech and reading. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1972.Google Scholar
McCusker, L. X., Hillinger, M. L., & Bias, R. G.Phonological recoding and reading. Psychological Bulletin, 1981, 89, 217245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGuigan, F. J., Keller, B., & Stanton, E.Covert language responses during silent reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1964, 55, 339343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morais, J., Cary, L., Alegria, J., & Bertelson, P.Does awareness of speech as a sequence of phones arise spontaneously? Cognition, 1979, 7, 323331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, J.The interaction of information in word recognition. Psychological Review, 1969, 76, 165178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muller, D.Phonic blending and transfer of letter training to word reading in children, Journal of Reading behavior, 19721973, 5, 212217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muraishi, S. The reading ability of preschool children in Japan. In Merritt, J. E. (Ed.), New horizons in reading. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association, 1976.Google Scholar
Otto, W.The acquisition and retention of paired associates by good, average, and poor readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1961, 52, 241248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., & Lesgold, A. M. Discourse comprehension and sources of individual differences. In Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (Eds.), Cognitive processes in comprehension. New York: Wiley, 1977.Google Scholar
Pflaum, S. W., Walberg, H. J., Karegianes, M. I., & Rasher, S. P. Reading instruction: A quantitative analysis. Educational Researcher, July-August 1980, 1218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I. Abstraction and the process of recognition. In Spence, J. T. & Bower, G. (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1969.Google Scholar
Rader, N. From written words to meaning: A developmental study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, 1975.Google Scholar
Resnick, L. B.Theory and practice in beginning reading instruction. Pittsburgh: Learning Research and Development Center, 1978.Google Scholar
Rodenborn, L. V., & Washburn, E.Some implications of new basal readers. Elementary my English, 1974, 51, 885888.Google Scholar
Rosner, J.Phonic analysis training and beginning reading skills. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Learning Research and Development Center Publication Series, No. 19, 1971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossky, E. S. Visual-auditory paired associate learning in reading-disabled children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1976.Google Scholar
Rozin, P. The acquisition of basic alphabetic principles: A structural approach. In Catania, A. C. & Brigham, J. A. (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis. New York: Irvington, 1978.Google Scholar
Rozin, P., & Gleitman, L. R. The structure and acquisition of reading II: The reading process and the acquisition of the alphabetic principle. In Reber, A. S. & Scarborough, D. L. (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading: The proceedings of the CUNY conference. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.Google Scholar
Rozin, P., Poritsky, S., & Sotsky, R.American children with reading problems can easily learn to read English represented by Chinese characters. Science, 1971, 171, 12641267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruddell, R. B.Reading instruction in first grade with varying emphasis on the regularity of grapheme-phoneme correspondences and the relation of language structure to meaning. Reading Teacher, 1966, 19, 653660.Google Scholar
Rudel, R. G., Denckla, M. B., & Broman, M.The effect of varying stimulus context on wordfinding ability: Dyslexia further differentiated from other learning disabilities. Brain and Language. 1981, 13, 130144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rugel, R. P.WISC subtest scores of disabled readers: A review with respect to Bannatyne’s recategorization. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1974, 7, 4864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. Toward an interactive model of reading. In Dornic, S. (Ed.), Attention and performance VI. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1977.Google Scholar
Sakamoto, T., & Makita, K. Japan. In Downing, J. (Ed.), Comparative reading. New York: Macmillan, 1973.Google Scholar
Savin, H. B. What the child knows about speech when he starts to learn to read. In Kavanagh, J. F. & Mattingly, I. G. (Eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationship between speech and reading. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Schwantes, F. M.Locus of the context effect in children’s word recognition. Child Development, 1981, 52, 895903.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seymour, P. H. K., & Porpodas, C. D. Lexical and non-lexical processing of spelling in dyslexia. In Frith, U. (Ed.), Cognitive processes in spelling. London: Academic Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Shankweiler, D., Liberman, I. Y., Mark, L. S., Fowler, C. A., & Fischer, F. W.The speech code and learning to read. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1979, 5, 531545.Google Scholar
Share, D. L., & McNicol, D. Lexical decision and naming times of children. Paper presented at the Seventh Annual Experimental Psychology Conference, Sydney, 1980.Google Scholar
Shulman, H. G., Hornak, R., & Sanders, E.The effects of graphemic, phonetic, and semantic relationships on access to lexical structures. Memory and Cognition, 1978, 6, 115123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slowaiczek, M. L., & Clifton, C.Subvocalization and reading for meaning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1980, 19, 573582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, F.Understanding reading, 2nd ed.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978.Google Scholar
Snowling, M.The development of grapheme-phoneme correspondence in normal and dyslexic readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1980, 29, 294305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spring, C.Encoding speed and memory span in dyslexic children. Journal of Special Education, 1976, 10, 3540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spring, C., & Capps, C.Encoding speed, rehearsal, and probed recall of dyslexic boys. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1974, 66, 780786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanley, G. Visual memory processes in dyslexia. In Deutsch, D. & Deutsch, J. A. (Eds.), Short-term memory. New York: Academic Press, 1975.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E.Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 1980, 16, 3271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Freeman, D. J.A longitudinal study of sentence context effects in second-grade children: Tests of an interactive-compensatory model. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1981, 32, 185199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tallal, P.Auditory temporal perception, phonics, and reading disabilities in children. Brain and Language, 1980, 9, 182198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomson, M. E., & Wilsher, C. Some aspects of memory in dyslexies and controls. In Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E., & Sykes, R. N. (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory. London: Academic Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Tinker, M. A.Teaching elementary reading. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1952.Google Scholar
Torgesen, J. K., & Houck, D. J.Processing deficiencies of learning-disabled children who perform poorly on the digit span test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1980, 72, 141160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vellutino, F. R.Alternative conceptualisations of dyslexia: Evidence in support of a verbal-deficit hypothesis. Harvard Educational Review, 1977, 47, 334354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vellutino, F. R. Theoretical issues in the study of word recognition: The unit of perception controversy reexaminad. In Rosenberg, S. (Ed.), Handbook of applied psycholinguistics: Major thrusts of research and theory. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1982.Google Scholar
Vellutino, F. R., Bentley, W. L., & Phillips, F.Inter- versus intra-hemispheric learning in dyslexic and normal readers. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1978, 20, 7180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vellutino, F. R., Harding, C. J., Phillips, F., & Steger, J. A.Differential transfer in poor and normal readers. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1975, 126, 318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vellutino, F. R., Steger, J. A., Harding, C. J., & Phillips, F.Verbal vs. non-verbal paired-associates learning in poor and normal readers. Neuropsychologia, 1975, 13, 7582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vellutino, F. R., Steger, J. A., & Pruzek, R. M.Inter- vs. intrasensory deficit in paired associate learning in poor and normal readers. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 1973, 5, 111123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Venezky, R. L.Letter-sound generalizations of first-, second-, and third-grade Finnish children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1973, 64, 288292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallach, M. A., & Wallach, L.Teaching all children to read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.Google Scholar
Waller, T. G.Children’s recognition memory for written sentences: A comparison of good and poor readers. Child Development, 1976, 47, 9095.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, R., & Rabinovitch, M. S.Sentence structure and retention in good and poor readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1971, 62, 2530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J.Reading instruction today. American Psychologist, 1979, 34, 917922.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, J. P.Teaching decoding with an emphasis on phoneme analysis and phoneme blending. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1980, 72, 115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winch, W. H. Teaching beginners to read in England: Its methods, results, and psychological bases. Journal of Educational Research Monographs, No. 8. Bloomington, Ill: Public School Publishing Company, 1925.Google Scholar
Zifcak, M.Phonological awareness and reading acquisition. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1981, 6, 117126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar