Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T18:44:35.529Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Towards a prehistory of primates

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

Michael Haslam*
Affiliation:
Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, Dyson Perrins Building, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK (Email: [email protected])

Extract

Using the behaviour of related primates to provide analogies for early humans has a long tradition in archaeology. But these primates too have a past, and experienced particular contexts for the adoption of tool-using. In this pioneering review, the author explores distinctions among chimpanzees in ecology, diet and innovation, sets a wider agenda for a prehistory of primates and explains how archaeology could serve it.

Type
Research article
Copyright
Copyright © Antiquity Publications Ltd. 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiello, L. & Dean, C.. 1990. An introduction to human evolutionary anatomy. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 2002. The Upper Palaeolithic revolution. Annual Review of Anthropology 31: 363–93.Google Scholar
Becquet, C., Patterson, N., Stone, A., Przeworski, M. & Reich, D.. 2007. Genetic structure of chimpanzee populations. PLoS Genetics 3: e66.Google Scholar
Biro, D., Carvalho, S. & Matsuzawa, T.. 2010. Tools, traditions, and technologies: interdisciplinary approaches to chimpanzee nut cracking, in Lonsdorf, E., Ross, S. & Matsuzawa, T. (ed.) The mind of the chimpanzee: ecological and experimental perspectives: 141–55. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bjork, A., Liu, W., Wertheim, J., Hahn, B. & Worobey, M.. 2011. Evolutionary history of chimpanzees inferred from complete mitochondrial genomes. Molecular Biology and Evolution 28: 615–23.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. 2007. What makes us human (Homo sapiens)? The challenge of cognitive cross-species comparison. Journal of Comparative Psychology 121: 227–40.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch, H.. 1982. Optimization of nut-cracking with natural hammers by wild chimpanzees. Behaviour 83: 265–86.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch, H.. 1984. Mental map in wild chimpanzees: an analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking. Primates 25: 160–70.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch, H.. 1989. Hunting behavior of wild chimpanzees in the Tä? National Park. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78: 547–73.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch, H.. 1990. Tool use and tool making in wild chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica 54: 8699.Google Scholar
Boesch, C. & Boesch-Achermann, H.. 2000. The chimpanzees of the Tai Forest. Behavioural ecology and evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Boesch, C., Head, J. & Robbins, M.. 2009. Complex tool sets for honey extraction among chimpanzees in Loango National Park, Gabon. Journal of Human Evolution 56: 560–69.Google Scholar
Breuer, T., Ndoundou-Hockemba, M. & Fishlock, V.. 2005. First observation of tool use in wild gorillas. PLoS Biology 3(11): e380.Google Scholar
Butynski, T. 2003. The robust chimpanzee Pan troglodytes: taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and conservation status, in Kormos, R., Boesch, C., Bakarr, M. & Butynski, T. (ed.) West African chimpanzees. Status survey and conservation action plan: 512. Cambridge: IUCN.Google Scholar
Byrne, R. 2005. The maker not the tool: the cognitive significance of great ape manual skills, in Roux, V. & Bril, B. (ed.) Stone knapping: the necessary conditions for a uniquely hominid behaviour: 159–69. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Canale, G. R., Guidorizzi, C. E., Kierulff, M.C.M. & Gatto, C. A.F.R.. 2009. First record of tool use by wild populations of the yellow-breasted capuchin monkey (Cebus xanthosternos) and new records for the bearded capuchin (Cebus libidinosus). American Journal of Primatology 71: 366–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carvalho, S., Cunho, E., Sousa, C. & Matsuzawa, T.. 2008. Chaînes opératoires and resource-exploitation strategies in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) nut cracking. Journal of Human Evolution 55: 148–63.Google Scholar
Carvalho, S., Biro, D., Mcgrew, W. C. & Matsuzawa, T.. 2009. Tool-composite reuse in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): archaeologically invisible steps in the technological evolution of early hominins? Animal Cognition 12: S103S114.Google Scholar
Casado, F., Bonvincino, C., Nagle, C., Comas, B., Manzur, T., Lahos, M. & Seuanez, H.. 2010. Mitochondrial divergence between 2 populations of the hooded capuchin, Cebus (Sapajus) cay (Platyrrhini, Primates). Journal of Heredity 101: 261–69.Google Scholar
Caswell, J., Mallick, S., Richter, D., Neubauer, J., Schirmer, C., Gnerre, S. & Reich, D.. 2008. Analysis of chimpanzee history based on genome sequence alignments. PLoS Genetics 4(4): e1000057.Google Scholar
Clark, J. D. 1960. Human ecology during Pleistocene and later times in Africa south of the Sahara. Current Anthropology 1: 307324.Google Scholar
Conard, N. 2008. A critical view of the evidence for a southern African origin of behavioural modernity. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 10: 175–79.Google Scholar
D'Errico, F. 2003. The invisible frontier. A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity. Evolutionary Anthropology 12: 188202.Google Scholar
D'Errico, F. & Stringer, C.. 2011. Evolution, revolution or saltation scenario for the emergence of modern cultures? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366: 1060–69.Google Scholar
De La Torre, I. 2010. Insights on the technical competence of the early Oldowan, in Nowell, A. & I. Davidson (ed.) Stone tools and the evolution of human cognition: 4565. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado.Google Scholar
Deblauwe, I., Guislain, P., Dupain, J. & Van Elsacker, L.. 2006. Use of a tool-set by Pan troglodytes troglodytes to obtain termites (Macrotermes) in the periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve, southeast Cameroon. American Journal of Primatology 68: 1191–96.Google Scholar
Dupont, L., Jahns, S., Marret, F. & Ning, S.. 2010. Vegetation change in equatorial West Africa: time-slices for the last 150 ka. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 155: 95122.Google Scholar
Foley, R. 1987. Another unique species. New York: Longman Scientific & Technical.Google Scholar
Foley, R. 1993. African terrestrial primates: the comparative evolutionary biology of Theropithecus and hominids, in Jablonski, N. (ed.) Theropithecus - the rise and fall of a primate genus: 245–70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fowler, A. & Sommer, V.. 2007. Subsistence technology of Nigerian chimpanzees. International Journal of Primatology 28: 9971023.Google Scholar
Gagneux, P., Gonder, M., Goldberg, T. & Morin, P.. 2001. Gene flow in wild chimpanzee populations: what genetic data tell us about chimpanzee movement over space and time. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 356: 889–97.Google Scholar
Gamble, C., Gowlett, J.A.J. & Dunbar, R.. 2011. The social brain and the shape of the Palaeolithic. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 21: 115–35.Google Scholar
Goebel, T., Waters, M. R. & O'Rourke, D.. 2008. The Late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans in the Americas. Science 319: 1497–502.Google Scholar
Goldberg, T. 1998. Biogeographic predictors of genetic diversity in populations of eastern African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthi). International Journal of Primatology 19: 237–54.Google Scholar
Gonder, M., Locatelli, S., Ghobrial, L., Mitchell, M., Kujawski, J., Lankester, F., Stewart, C.-B. & Tishkoff, S.. 2011. Evidence from Cameroon reveals differences in the genetic structure and histories of chimpanzee populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 108: 4766–71.Google Scholar
Gowlett, J.A.J. 2009. Artefacts of apes, humans, and others: towards comparative assessment and analysis. Journal of Human Evolution 57: 401410.Google Scholar
Gumert, M., Kluck, M. & Malaivijitnond, S.. 2009. The physical characteristics and usage patterns of stone axe and pounding hammers used by long-tailed macaques in the Andaman Sea region of Thailand. American Journal of Primatology 71: 594608.Google Scholar
Gumert, M., Hoong, L. K. & Malaivijitnond, S.. 2011. Sex differences in the stone tool-use behavior of a wild population of Burmese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea). American Journal of Primatology 73: 111.Google Scholar
Haslam, M., Hernandez-Aguilar, A., Ling, V., Carvalho, S., De La Torre, I., Destefano, A., Du, A., Hardy, B. L., Harris, J., Marchant, L., Matsuzawa, T., Mcgrew, W., Mercarder, J., Mora, R., Petraglia, M., Roche, H., Visalberghi, E. & Warren, R.. 2009. Primate archaeology. Nature 460: 339–44.Google Scholar
Haslam, M., Carvalho, S., Crowther, A. & Matsuzawa, T.. 2010. Residue analysis of modern and ancient chimpanzee pounding tools from Bossou and Diecké, Guinea: defining a primate archaeological signature. Paper presented at the 23rd International Primatological Society Congress, Kyoto.Google Scholar
Hayashi, M., Mizuno, Y. & Matsuzawa, T.. 2005. How does stone-tool use emerge? Introduction of stones and nuts to naïve chimpanzees in captivity. Primates 46: 91102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J. 2004. Demography and cultural evolution: how adaptive cultural processes can produce maladaptive losses: the Tasmanian case. American Antiquity 69: 197214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henshilwood, C. S. & Marean, C. W.. 2003. The origin of modern human behavior. Current Anthropology 44: 627–51.Google Scholar
Hernandez-Aguilar, A. 2009. Chimpanzee nest distribution and site reuse in a dry habitat: implications for early hominin ranging. Journal of Human Evolution 57: 350–64.Google Scholar
Hernandez-Aguilar, A., Moore, J. & Pickering, T.. 2007. Savanna chimpanzees use tools to harvest the underground storage organs of plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 104: 19210–13.Google Scholar
Hey, J. 2010. The divergence of chimpanzee species and subspecies as revealed in multipopulation isolation-with-migration analyses. Molecular Biology and Evolution 27: 921–33.Google Scholar
Hohmann, G. & Fruth, B.. 2003. Culture in bonobos? Between-species and within-species variation in behavior. Current Anthropology 44: 563–71.Google Scholar
Holloway, R. 1969. Culture: a human domain. Current Anthropology 10: 395412.Google Scholar
Hoorn, C., Wesselingh, F., Ter Steege, H., Bermudez, M., Mora, A., Sevink, J., Sanmartin, I., Sanchez-Meseguer, A., Anderson, C., Figueiredo, J., Jaramillo, C., Riff, D., Negri, F., Hooghiemstra, H., Lundberg, J., Stadler, T., Särkinen, T. & Antonelli, A.. 2010. Amazonia through time: Andean uplift, climate change, landscape evolution, and biodiversity. Science 330: 927–31.Google Scholar
Isaac, G. L. 1969. Studies of early culture in East Africa. World Archaeology 1: 128.Google Scholar
Jablonski, N. 2002. The fossil record of Old World monkeys: the Late Neogene radiation, in Hartwig, W. (ed.) The primate fossil record: 255–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jolly, C. 1970. The seed-eaters: a new model of hominid differentiation based on a baboon analogy. Man 5: 526.Google Scholar
Joulian, F. 1996. Comparing chimpanzee and early hominid techniques: some contributions to cultural and cognitive questions, in Mellars, P. & Gibson, K. (ed.) Modelling the early human mind: 173–89. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G. 2000. Archeology and the evolution of human behavior. Evolutionary Anthropology 9: 1736.Google Scholar
Koops, K., Mcgrew, W. C. & Matsuzawa, T.. 2010. Do chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) use cleavers and anvils to fracture Treculia africana fruits? Preliminary data on a new form of percussive technology. Primates 51: 175–78.Google Scholar
Kumar, S., Filipski, A., Swarna, V., Walker, A. & Hedges, S.B.. 2005. Placing confidence limits on the molecular age of the human-chimpanzee divergence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 102: 18842–47.Google Scholar
Laden, G. & Wrangham, R.. 2005. The rise of the hominids as an adaptive shift in fallback foods: plant underground storage organs (USOs) and australopith origins. Journal of Human Evolution 49: 482–98.Google Scholar
Leakey, L. 1961. The progress and evolution of Man in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Leavens, D., Bard, K. & Hopkins, W.. 2010. BIZARRE chimpanzees do not represent ‘the chimpanzee’. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33: 100101.Google Scholar
Lehman, S. & Fleagle, J.. 2006. Biogeography and primates: a review, in Lehman, S. & Fleagle, J. (ed.) Primate biogeography: 158. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Lind, J. & Lindenfors, P.. 2010. The number of cultural traits is correlated with female group size but not with male group size in chimpanzee communities. PLoS One 5: e9241.Google Scholar
Lycett, S., Collard, M. & Mcgrew, W. C.. 2009. Cladistic analyses of behavioural variation in wild Pan troglodytes: exploring the chimpanzee culture hypothesis. Journal of Human Evolution 57: 339–47.Google Scholar
Lycett, S., Collard, M. & Mcgrew, W. C.. 2010. Are behavioral differences among wild chimpanzee communities genetic or cultural? An assessment using tool-use data and phylogenetic methods. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142: 461–67.Google Scholar
Lynch Alfaro, J., Boubli, J., Olson, L., Di Fiore, A., Wilson, B., Gutierrez-Espeleta, G., Chiou, K., Schulte, M., Neitzel, S., Ross, V., Schwochow, D., Nguyen, M., Farias, I., Janson, C. & Alfaro, M.. 2011. Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys. Journal of Biogeography. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x.Google Scholar
Malaivijitnond, S., Lekprayoon, C., Tandavanittj, N., Panha, S., Cheewatham, C. & Hamada, Y.. 2007. Stone-tool usage by Thai long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 69: 227–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mannu, M. & Ottoni, E.. 2009. The enhanced tool-kit of two groups of wild bearded capuchin monkeys in the Caatinga: tool making, associative use, and secondary tools. American Journal of Primatology 71: 242–51.Google Scholar
Marchant, L. F. & Mcgrew, W. C.. 2005. Percussive technology: chimpanzee baobab smashing and the evolutionary modeling of hominid knapping, in Roux, V. & Bril, B. (ed.) Stone knapping: the necessary conditions for a uniquely hominin behaviour 341–50. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Marshall-Pescini, S. & Whiten, A.. 2008a. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and the question of cumulative culture: an experimental approach. Animal Cognition 11: 449–56.Google Scholar
Marshall-Pescini, S. & Whiten, A.. 2008b. Social learning of nut-cracking behavior in East African sanctuary-living chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Journal of Comparative Psychology 122: 186–94.Google Scholar
Mayr, E. & O'Hara, R. J.. 1986. The biogeographic evidence supporting the Pleistocene forest refuge hypothesis. Evolution 40: 5567.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S. & Brooks, A.. 2000. The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 39: 453563.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S. & Jablonski, N.. 2005. First fossil chimpanzee. Nature 437: 105108.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. 1992. Chimpanzee material culture: implications for human evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. 2001. The other faunivory: primate insectivory and early human diet, in Stanford, C. & Bunn, H. (ed.) Meat-eating and human evolution: 160–78. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. 2004. The cultured chimpanzee: reflections on cultural primatology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. 2010. In search of the last common ancestor: new findings on wild chimpanzees. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365: 3267–76.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C., Baldwin, P. & Tutin, C.. 1988. Diet of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Mt. Assirik Senegal: I. Composition. American Journal of Primatology 16: 213–26.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C., Ham, R. M., White, L.J.T., Tutin, C. & Fernandez, M.. 1997. Why don't chimpanzees in Gabon crack nuts? International Journal of Primatology 18: 353–74.Google Scholar
Mcpherron, S. P., Alemseged, Z., Marean, C. W., Wynn, J., Reed, D., Geraads, D., Bobe, R. & Bearat, H.. 2010. Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature 466: 857–60.Google Scholar
Mellars, P. & Stringer, C. (ed.). 1989. The human revolution: behavioral and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Mercader, J. 2002. Forest people: the role of African rainforests in human evolution and dispersal. Evolutionary Anthropology 11: 117–24.Google Scholar
Mercader, J., Panger, M. & Boesch, C.. 2002. Excavation of a chimpanzee stone tool site in the African rainforest. Science 296: 1452–55.Google Scholar
Mercader, J., Barton, H., Gillespie, J., Harris, J., Kuhn, S., Tyler, R. T. & Boesch, C.. 2007. 4,300-year-old chimpanzee sites and the origins of percussive stone technology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 104(9): 3043–48.Google Scholar
Milton, K. 1999. Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us? Nutrition 15: 488–98.Google Scholar
Minugh-Purvis, N. 1995. The modern human origins controversy: 1984-1994. Evolutionary Anthropology 4: 140–47.Google Scholar
Mitani, J. 2006. Demographic influences on the behavior of chimpanzees. Primates 47: 613.Google Scholar
Morgan, B. & Abwe, E.. 2006. Chimpanzees use stone hammers in Cameroon. Current Biology 16: R632R33.Google Scholar
Moura, A. & Lee, P.. 2004. Capuchin stone tool use in caatinga dry forest. Science 306: 1909.Google Scholar
Nishida, T., Matsusaka, T. & Mcgrew, W. C.. 2009. Emergence, propagation or disappearance of novel behavioral patterns in the habituated chimpanzees of Mahale: a review. Primates 50: 2336.Google Scholar
Nishida, T., Zamma, K., Matsusaka, T., Inaba, A. & McGrew, W. C.. 2010. Chimpanzee behavior in the wild: an audio-visual encyclopedia. Tokyo: Springer.Google Scholar
Ottoni, E. & Izar, P.. 2008. Capuchin monkey tool use: overview and implications. Evolutionary Anthropology 17: 171–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panger, M., Brooks, A., Richmond, B. G. & Wood, B.. 2002. Older than the Oldowan? Rethinking the emergence of hominin tool use. Evolutionary Anthropology 11: 235–45.Google Scholar
Parker, S. & Gibson, K.. 1979. A developmental model for the evolution of language and intelligence in early hominids. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2: 367408.Google Scholar
Potts, R. 2007. Environmental hypotheses of Pliocene human evolution, in Bobe, R., Alemseged, Z. & Behrensmeyer, A. K. (ed.) Hominin environments in the East African Pliocene: an assessment of the faunal evidence: 2549. Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar
Powell, A., Shennan, S. & Thomas, M.. 2009. Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behavior. Science 324: 1298–301.Google Scholar
Pruetz, J. & Bertolani, P.. 2007. Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. Current Biology 17: 412–17.Google Scholar
Pruetz, J. & Bertolani, P.. 2009. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) behavioral responses to stresses associated with living in a savanna-mosaic environment: implications for hominin adaptations to open habitats. PaleoAnthropology 2009: 252–62.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C. 2007. Prehistory: making of the human mind. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.Google Scholar
Richerson, P. J., Boyd, R. & Bettinger, R. L.. 2009. Cultural innovations and demographic change. Human Biology 81: 211–35.Google Scholar
Salzmann, U. & Hoelzmann, P.. 2005. The Dahomey Gap: an abrupt climatically induced rain forest fragmentation in West Africa during the late Holocene. The Holocene 15: 190–99.Google Scholar
Sanz, C. & Morgan, D.. 2009. Flexible and persistent tool-using strategies in honey-gathering by wild chimpanzees. International Journal of Primatology 30: 411–27.Google Scholar
Sanz, C. & Morgan, D.. 2010. The complexity of chimpanzee tool-use behaviors, in Lonsdorf, E., Ross, S., Matsuzawa, T. & Goodall, J. (ed.) The mind of the chimpanzee: ecological and experimental perspectives: 127–40. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sanz, C., Morgan, D. & Gulick, S.. 2004. New insights into chimpanzees, tools and termites from the Congo Basin. American Naturalist 164: 567–81.Google Scholar
Sanz, C., Call, J. & Morgan, D.. 2009. Design complexity in termite-fishing tools of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Biology Letters 5: 293–96.Google Scholar
Semaw, S., Rogers, M. J., Quade, J., Renne, P., Butler, R.F., Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Stout, D., Hart, W. S., Pickering, T. & Simpson, S. W.. 2003. 2.6-million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 45: 169–77.Google Scholar
Sept, J. 1998. Shadows on a changing landscape: comparing nesting patterns of hominids and chimpanzees since their last common ancestor. American Journal of Primatology 46: 85101.Google Scholar
Sept, J. & Brooks, G. E.. 1994. Reports of chimpanzee natural history, including tool use, in 16th- and 17th-century Sierra Leone. International Journal of Primatology 15: 867–78.Google Scholar
Shea, J. J. 2011. Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was. Behavioral variability versus ‘behavioral modernity’ in Paleolithic archaeology. Current Anthropology 52: 135.Google Scholar
Shennan, S. 2001. Demography and cultural innovation: a model and its implications for the emergence of modern human culture. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 11: 516.Google Scholar
Shumaker, R., Walkup, K. & Beck, B.. 2011. Animal tool behavior: the use and manufacture of tools by animals. Baltimore (MD): John Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Silk, J. 2011. The path to sociality. Nature 479: 182–83.Google Scholar
Soares, P., Ermini, L., Thomson, N., Mormina, M., Rito, T., Rohl, A., Salas, A., Oppenheimer, S. & Richards, M.. 2009. Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock. American Journal of Human Genetics 84: 740–59.Google Scholar
Souto, A., Bione, C., Bastos, M., Bezerra, B., Fragaszy, D. & Schiel, N.. 2011. Critically endangered blonde capuchins fish for termites and use new techniques to accomplish the task. Biology Letters. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2011.0034.Google Scholar
Spagnoletti, N., Visalberghi, E., Ottoni, E., Izar, P. & Fragaszy, D.. 2011. Stone tool use by adult wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus). Frequency, efficiency and tool selectivity. Journal of Human Evolution 61: 97107.Google Scholar
Steffen, W., Grinevald, J., Crutzen, P. & McNeill, J.. 2011. The Anthropocene: conceptual and historical perspectives. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 369: 842–67.Google Scholar
Stewart, F., Piel, A. & Mcgrew, W. C.. 2011. Living archaeology: artefacts of specific nest site fidelity in wild chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution 61: 388–95.Google Scholar
Stone, A., Battistuzzi, F., Kubatko, L., Perry, G. H., Trudeau, E., Lin, H. & Kumar, S.. 2010. More reliable estimates of divergence times in Pan using complete mtDNA sequences and accounting for population structure. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365: 3277–88.Google Scholar
Sugiyama, Y. 1994. Tool use by wild chimpanzees. Nature 367: 327.Google Scholar
Tennie, C., Call, J. & Tomasello, M.. 2009. Ratcheting up the ratchet: on the evolution of cumulative culture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 364: 2405–15.Google Scholar
Thieme, H. 1997. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385: 807–10.Google Scholar
Toth, N. & Schick, K.. 2009. The Oldowan: the tool making of early hominins and chimpanzees compared. Annual Review of Anthropology 38: 289305.Google Scholar
Tweheyo, M., Lye, K. & Weladji, R.. 2004. Chimpanzee diet and habitat selection in the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Forest Ecology and Management 188: 267–78.Google Scholar
Ungar, P. 1998. Dental allometry, morphology, and wear as evidence for diet in fossil primates. Evolutionary Anthropology 6: 205–17.Google Scholar
Ungar, P. & Sponheimer, M.. 2011. The diets of early hominins. Science 334: 190–93.Google Scholar
Van Schaik, C., Fox, E. & Sitompul, A.. 1996. Manufacture and use of tools in wild Sumatran orangutans. Naturwissenschaften 83: 186–88.Google Scholar
Van Schaik, C., Deaner, R. & Merrill, M.. 1999. The conditions for tool use in primates: implications for the evolution of material culture. Journal of Human Evolution 36: 719–41.Google Scholar
Van Schaik, C., Ancrenaz, M., Borgen, G., Galdikas, B., Knott, C., Singleton, I., Suzuki, A., Utami, S. S. & Merrill, M.. 2003. Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture. Science 299: 102105.Google Scholar
Visalberghi, E., Fragaszy, D., Ottoni, E., Izar, P., De Oliveira, M. & Andrade, F.. 2007. Characteristics of hammer stones and anvils used by wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) to crack open palm nuts. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 132: 426–44.Google Scholar
Visalberghi, E., Addessi, E., Truppa, V., Spagnoletti, N., Ottoni, E., Izar, P. & Fragaszy, D.. 2009. Selection of effective stone tools by wild bearded capuchin monkeys. Current Biology 19: 213–17.Google Scholar
Vrba, E. 2000. Major features of neogene mammalian evolution in Africa, in Partridge, T. & Maud, R. (ed.) Cenozoic geology of southern Africa: 277304. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wadley, L. 2001. What is cultural modernity? A general view and a South African perspective from Rose Cottage Cave. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 11: 201–21.Google Scholar
Washburn, S. & Devore, I.. 1961. Social behavior of baboons and early man, in Washburn, S. (ed.) Social life of early Man: 91105. New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.Google Scholar
Wegmann, D. & Excoffier, L.. 2010. Bayesian inference of the demographic history of chimpanzees. Molecular Biology and Evolution 27: 1425–35.Google Scholar
Whiten, A. 2011. The scope of culture in chimpanzees, humans and ancestral apes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366: 9971007.Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynlds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C., Wrangham, R. & Boesch, C.. 1999. Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399: 682–85.Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynlds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C., Wrangham, R. & Boesch, C.. 2001. Charting cultural variation in chimpanzees. Behaviour 138: 1481–516.Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Schick, K. & Toth, N.. 2009. The evolution and cultural transmission of percussive technology: integrating evidence from palaeoanthropology and primatology. Journal of Human Evolution 57: 420–35.Google Scholar
Won, Y.-J. & Hey, J.. 2005. Divergence population genetics of chimpanzees. Molecular Biology and Evolution 22: 297307.Google Scholar
Wood, B. & Harrison, T.. 2011. The evolutionary context of the first hominins. Nature 470: 347–52.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. 2006. Chimpanzees: the culture-zone concept becomes untidy. Current Biology 16:R634R635.Google Scholar
Wynn, T. G., Hernandez-Aguilar, A., Marchant, L.F. & Mcgrew, W. C.. 2011. ‘An ape's view of the Oldowan’ revisited. Evolutionary Anthropology 20: 181–97.Google Scholar
Yu, N., Jensen-Seaman, M., Chemnick, L., Kidd, J., Deinard, A., Ryder, O., Kidd, K. & Li, W.-H.. 2003. Low nucleotide diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos. Genetics 164: 1511–18.Google Scholar