We are embarked on a decade of celebrations of the national expeditions of what is now termed the Heroic Age. Exploring the Antarctic – the great unknown continent – a hundred years ago was great adventure and, given what we now know of the primitive state of their equipment, it is surprising that more of these explorers did not die. The tragic death of Captain Scott's polar party must be taken as a key talisman for the title “Heroic Age” but we should not underestimate the courage and fortitude of all the others – British, Swedish, Norwegian, French, German, Belgian, Argentinean, Polish, Romanian, American etc – who sailed, walked and sledged into the unknown for the greater good of their nation.

The joint inspection report by Australia, Peru and the United Kingdom, presented at the last ATCM in Stockholm, contained an unusual recommendation. On the basis of the science that they had seen at the research stations the inspection team had concluded that there was both very good science and very poor science being undertaken. They apparently believed that this pattern was probably true of the whole continent but needed a more expert examination. Their recommendation was that SCAR should undertake an in situ assessment of all scientific research in the Antarctic.

How well is the scientific community doing on providing policy makers with evidence for climate change and predictions for its future trends? The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is one of the flagships of international scientific collaboration. Every five years, IPCC Working Group 1 compiles the state of the art in the science of climate change. The Third Assessment Report was presented in 2001, and writing of the Fourth Assessment Report began in the autumn of 2004. External, invited experts reviewed the initial draft last May and the final report will be made available to governments and public in late 2006. In September 2005 the first draft will even be published on the Internet for an eight-week external review period by anyone interested.

Recently hearing Fred Singer from the USA lecture on what he perceives to be the uncritical ways in which global change has been attributed to anthropogenic effects reminded me of the importance we should attach to those who question our current beliefs. For Fred it was not sufficient that the IPCC had engaged many of the best scientific brains in the world to reach the existing consensus; they might all be wrong because the original question or assumption was wrong. Fred was strongly challenged by the audience of Antarctic scientists, not least because some of his quotations were selective in order to initiate discussion. And we know that there are areas of considerable weakness amongst the several proxies used to compute the rate of temperature change, that we have only poorly quantified and modelled the role of clouds, energy transfer between the oceans and atmosphere, water vapour as a greenhouse gas and that we have yet to be certain that the Global Climate Models really do have all the most significant driving variables. So the IPCC conclusions are drawn on the best available evidence with complementary patterns derived from several different approaches and constitute the best we can do at the moment.

Pingüinera Stream is one of the two main lotic environments of Cierva Point (Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 134) on the Danco Coast, Antarctic Peninsula. It originates in a large snowfield, flows through a penguin rookery, moss and grass banks, discharging into Cierva Cove. During late Antarctic summer 2003, we sampled the stream at six locations along its course. Abiotic features characterize it as a clear water system, yet receiving a very high amount of PO4-P and NH4-N from the rookery. These nutrients decrease downstream mainly due to uptake by epilithic algae and oxidation of NH4+ to NO3-, consequently lowering pH and dissolved O2, which was always under-saturated. Strong correlations between all these parameters support these findings. The epilithic algal community shows both temporal and spatial changes in biomass, composition and relative frequencies. Dominant species at the higher reach of the stream are cyanobacteria, mainly Chamaesiphon subglobosus (Rostafinski) Lemm. and a mesh of Leptolyngbya spp. filaments. The chlorophyta Prasiola calophylla (Carmich.) Menegh. dominates the community in oxygenated, fast-flowing reaches. Comparison with the other main stream from Cierva Point, which is not influenced by the rookery, shows that growth and survival of the epilithic community in this area is limited by factors other than nutrient concentrations.

High southern latitude island environments are unusual in having relatively low or, in some cases, no non-indigenous species (NIS). Here we describe the accidental transport and survivorship of moths (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) on a research vessel travelling from southern South America (Montevideo, Uruguay) first to the cool temperate Falkland Islands and then onwards to Maritime Antarctic Signy Island (South Orkney Islands). On the vessel's arrival at Stanley, Falkland Islands, from Montevideo we found eight live (and 30 dead) individuals of two species of South American noctuid moth (Pseudaletia adultera Schaus and Peridroma saucia (Hübner)), presumed to have been attracted to the ship's lights while in port. Neither of these is indigenous to the Falkland Islands. Five of the eight living moths (all P. adultera) survived the four days the ship was moored in Stanley and one survived a further four day journey across the Polar Front to Signy Island. Southern oceanic islands are particularly vulnerable to invasion by NIS, with human (shipping) activities being the main route of arrival. With increasing shipping throughout this region some measures have been proposed or adopted to reduce the risk of NIS transfer.

There is a potential threat to marine mammals from acoustic signals emitted by hydroacoustic devices. The impact on the hearing of marine mammals depends on the technical parameters of the instruments and on the exposure of the animal to noise pulses, as well as on the properties of the biological system, that is to say, on the anatomy and the audiogram of the animal. Here, the blue whale, the sperm whale and the beaked whale are taken as examples in an investigation of the potential exposure to noise pulses from the hydroacoustic instruments Hydrosweep and Parasound. Diving depths of the whales and relative speeds of the animals with respect to the survey vessels are taken into account, as well as the area impacted by the equipment, in estimating the level of sound needed to produce “temporary threshold shift” in an animal. The results suggest that auditory damage is only likely if animals pass the transducer at close range and that the impact on marine mammals can be mitigated by implementing prior detection and shut down procedures.

Antarctic ice cores have become a unique and powerful resource for studies of climate change. They contain information on past climate, on forcing factors such as greenhouse gas concentrations, and on numerous other environmental parameters. For recent centuries, sites with high snow accumulation are chosen. They have, for example, provided the only direct evidence that carbon dioxide concentrations have increased by over 30% over the last two centuries. They have provided key datasets for other greenhouse gases, and for other forcings such as solar and volcanic. Over longer timescales, the Vostok ice core has shown how greenhouse gas concentrations and climate have closely tracked one another over the last 400 000 years. Other cores have shown detailed spatial and temporal detail of climate transitions, including the Antarctic response during rapid climate events such as Dansgaard-Oeschger events. The new core from Dome C has extended the range of ice cores back beyond 800 000 years, and even older ice could be obtained in future projects.

Organisms have a limited number of responses that enhance survival in changing environments. They can: 1. Cope within existing physiological flexibility; 2. Adapt to changing conditions; or 3. Migrate to sites that allow survival. Species inhabiting coastal seabed sites around Antarctica have poorer physiological capacities to deal with change than species elsewhere. They die when temperatures are raised by only 5–10°C above the annual average, and many species lose the ability to perform essential functions, e.g. swimming in scallops or burying in infaunal bivalve molluscs when temperatures are raised only 2–3°C. The ability to adapt, or evolve new characters to changing conditions depends, at least in part, on generation time. Antarctic benthic species grow slowly and develop at rates often x5–x10 slower than similar temperate species. They also live to great age, and exhibit deferred maturity. Longer generation times reduce the opportunities to produce novel mutations, and result in poorer capacities to adapt to change. Intrinsic capacities to colonize new sites and migrate away from deteriorating conditions depend on adult abilities to locomote over large distances, or for reproductive stages to drift for extended periods. The slow development of Antarctic benthic species means their larvae do spend extended periods in the water column. However, whereas most continents have coastlines extending over a wide range of latitude, Antarctica is almost circular in outline, is isolated from other oceans by the circumpolar current, and its coastline covers few degrees of latitude. Thus in a warming environment there are fewer places to migrate to. On all three major criteria Antarctic benthic species appear less capable than species elsewhere of responding to change in ways that can enhance survival.

Simultaneous, but contrary, decadal-scale changes in population trajectories of two penguin species in the western Pacific and Ross Sea sectors of the Southern Ocean, during the early/mid-1970s and again during 1988–89, correspond to changes in weather and sea ice patterns. These in turn are related to shifts in the semi-annual and Antarctic oscillations. Populations of the two ecologically dissimilar penguin species - Adélie Pygoscelis adeliae and emperor Aptenodytes forsteri - have been tallied annually since the 1950s making these the longest biological datasets for the Antarctic. Both species are obligates of sea ice and, therefore, allowing for the demographic lags inherent in the response of long-lived species to habitat or environmental variation, the proximate mechanisms responsible for the shifts involved changes in coastal wind strength and air and sea temperatures, which in turn affected the seasonal formation and decay of sea ice and polynyas. The latter probably affected such rates as the proportion of adults breeding and ultimately the reproductive output of populations in ways consistent with the two species' opposing sea ice needs. Corresponding patterns for the mid-1970s shift were reflected also in ice-obligate Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddelli populations and the structure of shallow-water sponge communities in the Ross Sea. The 1988–89 shift, by which time many more datasets had become available, was reflected among several ice-frequenting vertebrate species from all Southern Ocean sectors. Therefore, the patterns most clearly identified in the Pacific Sector were apparently spread throughout the high latitudes of the Southern Ocean.

Gentoo penguin Pygoscelis papua is an important component of the Antarctic marine ecosystem. In this paper, we use an indirect approach, a geochemical method combining with 137Cs and 210Pb CRS mode dating, to study the dynamics of the gentoo population and colony on Barton Peninsula, King George Island, in the maritime Antarctic. Five sediment profiles were sampled in the zone between the gentoo penguin colony and tundra vegetation on this peninsula and the sediment sequence and typical elements from penguin guano were analysed. Results showed that the levels for typical elements display a dramatic change at around 5 cm depth, indicating the strong impact of penguin guano. The sediments below 5 cm showed lower concentrations in these elements, suggesting that these sediments had received little impact from penguin guano. By Q-mode factor analysis, a method for decomposing multiple factors, we found that over the past sixty years the gentoo colony showed a rapid enlargement and the tundra vegetation had been destroyed. Possible factors responsible for the enlargement of the penguin colony are tentatively discussed.

Composition and biomass of an Antarctic megafauna community were studied during a discontinuous 12 months cycle (March–December 1999 and December 2000–March 2001) at two stations (12 and 25 m depth) in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. During this period iceberg impacts were monitored in order to analyse their role in structuring the community. Organic matter content of the sediment showed a seasonal cycle for both depths, with lower values during winter and higher in summer. Composition and biomass of the megafauna were comparable to those described in previous surveys for the maritime Antarctica. Interannual or summer/winter changes in the density or biomass of the megafauna community were not significant, although significant differences between depths occurred during the whole survey. The observed community composition can be the considered result of a continuous invasion from a deeper fauna, constrained at shallower waters by the effects of ice and storms.

Present day Southern Ocean benthic biodiversity is the result of climatic changes based on the break-up of Gondwana in the Cretaceous and the Cenozoic and the physiological potential of the fauna to cope with the climatic deterioration. Though many taxa survived the thermal drop in ocean bottom temperatures, zoogeographic ranges changed and some faunal elements even became extinct, e.g. benthic decapods and teleost fish, opening up new ecological niches and the potential for enormous adaptive radiations within some taxa, like the amphipods and isopods (peracarid crustaceans) and notothenioid fish. Ice-sheet extensions and retreats might have enhanced speciation processes as well as eurybathy. Biodiversity on the Antarctic shelf is high within the polychaetes, molluscs, and echinoderms, and within the amphipods and isopods possibly due to the Cenozoic extinction of the benthic decapods. Moreover, some shelf areas are characterized by accumulations of large suspension feeders like poriferans, bryozoans, ascidians, gorgonians, and hydroids. Palaeoclimatic changes also caused that many taxa of the modern, present day Southern Ocean benthic organisms are characterized by gigantism, slow metabolism, longevity, and a reduced number of offspring combined with late maturation. However, our biological knowledge is mainly confined to Southern Ocean shelf organism; we do not know much about the composition, biodiversity and zoogeography of the Southern Ocean deep sea animals. On this background the deep sea expeditions ANDEEP were born and the background and first results of these are presented herein.

The introduction of invasive species may be the most profound modern threat to biological communities in high-latitude regions. In the Southern Ocean, the natural transport mechanism for shallow-water marine organisms provided by kelp rafts is being increasingly augmented by plastic debris and shipping activity. Plastic debris provide additional opportunities for dispersal of invasive organisms, but dispersal routes are passive, dependent on ocean currents, and already established. In contrast, ships create novel pathways, moving across currents and often visiting many locations over short periods of time. Transportation of hull-fouling communities by vessel traffic thus poses the most likely mechanism by which exotic species may be introduced to the Southern Ocean.

Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands is one of the most volcanically active sites south of 60°S. Between 1967 and 1970 three major eruptions devastated large expanses of the landscape and its vegetation. Since 1970 extensive recolonization has occurred on the more stable surfaces. Unheated ground supports several bryophyte and lichen communities typical of much of the Maritime Antarctic, but geothermal habitats possess remarkable associations of bryophytes, many of which are unknown or very rare elsewhere in the Antarctic. Nine geothermal sites and their vegetation are described. Communities associated with more transient sites have disappeared when the geothermal activity ceased. Mosses and liverworts occur to within a few centimetres of the vents where temperatures reach 90–95°C, while temperatures within adjacent moss turf can reach 35–50°C or more and remain consistently between 25 and 45°C. Most of the bryoflora has a Patagonian–Fuegian provenance. It is presumed that, unlike most species, the thermophiles are not pre-adapted to the Antarctic environment, being able to colonize only where the warm and humid conditions prevail. The floristic and ecological importance of these thermophilic communities, and their sensitivity to perturbation by the rapidly increasing annual summer influx of tourists, as well as scientists, has resulted in these unique sites being proposed as components of a new Antarctic Specially Protected Area under the Antarctic Treaty.

Nesting sites of the naked dragonfish Gymnodraco acuticeps have been identified in 15–35 m water under fast ice adjacent to McMurdo Station, making it possible to examine embryonic development and early larval growth. Egg-laying (predominantly in October) is preceded by a distinctive whirling behavioural pattern driven by the male prodding the side of the female's abdomen. The eggs (3.42 ± 0.19 mm in diameter) are laid on rocks as a single adherent layer (c. 2500 per patch). Development is unusually protracted, the first cleavage occurring after about 24 hr at about −1.9°C. Hatching occurs about 10 months post-fertilization, beginning soon after the sun rises above the horizon. During this period one of the parents may act as a guard in an attempt to keep predators at bay. Upon hatching, the larvae (12.09 ± 0.36 mm long) swim towards the surface ice where they presumably seek refuge. Yolk absorption is complete in about 15 days. Larvae (grown in aquaria at a density of 0.7 larvae l−1) display an average daily growth rate of 0.42% over nine weeks. Hatching in aquaria can occur up to 100 days in advance of that seen in the field, suggesting that under natural conditions hatching may be delayed until an appropriate stimulus (such as the return of the sun) is received.

The flux and composition of settling particles were measured in a subtidal benthic environment of Marian Cove, King George Island, from February 1998–January 2000. The total mass flux ranged between 2.47 g m−2 d−1 (August and September 1998) and 21.97 g m−2 d−1 (February 1999), and showed distinct seasonal variation: high in the summer and low in winter. Lithogenic particles constituted 70–95% of the total particles, while biogenic particles represented only 10%, except in spring when biogenic particles made up more than 30%. The fluxes of organic carbon, biogenic silica, nitrogen, and organic phosphorus all peaked in spring rather than in summer, with ranges of 4.4–34.0, 1.2–23.5, 0.48–5.56, and 0.01–0.15 mmol m−2 d−1, respectively. Fluxes of metals (Al, Ti, Cu, Cd, and Pb) showed temporal variability, similar to that of the total mass flux, but each metal had different enrichment factor (EF) values. The EF value of Cu correlated positively with fluxes in lithogenic components, while the EF value of Cd correlated with biogenic particle fluxes. The Cu flux is mainly related to substantial inflows of melt water laden with Cu- enriched lithogenic particles. The Cd flux is probably associated with organic matter deposition following phytoplankton blooms in the water column.

Are we failing to acknowledge the impact of global changes (e.g. UVB, invasive species, climate, land use, atmosphere) on the terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem processes of Antarctica? Antarctica is considered a pristine environment and has low terrestrial species diversity and trophic complexity, and yet while scientifically possible, we still do not know the number of species, where they are, or how their influence on ecosystem processes (e.g. nutrient cycling, carbon flux, decomposition, feedbacks to climate, hydrology) will be affected by multiple global changes. Increased recognition of human dependence on services provided by biodiversity and ecosystem functioning combined with documented impacts of global change already occurring on Antarctic soil ecosystems, increases the urgency to expand investigations regionally in Antarctica. We cannot measure the effects of global change or sustainably manage Antarctica's future if we underestimate the contribution of soil communities. Evidence indicates habitats of rocky moraines, soils and cyroconite holes of glaciers in the continental interior may host not only microbes, but also a complexity of algae and invertebrates. Scientists of many disciplines, together, need to assess the benefits humans derive from Antarctic terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem processes, how these will be affected by global change, and link their findings to the rest of the world.

Data on the response behaviour of seals (crabeater, leopard and Ross) and penguins (Adélie and emperor) to helicopter surveys over the pack ice off East Antarctica are presented. The surveys involved Sikorsky S76 helicopters flying at altitude 130 m and speed 90 knots along straight-line transects. The relative frequency of alert and movement behaviours by seal and penguin groups decreased with distance out to 800 m from the flight path. Penguin groups were more likely to show a movement response than seals at all distances. The perpendicular distances moved relative to the flight path were small (maximum 20 m, mean ≤ 3 m, for both seal and penguin groups) relative to the width of the area searched (800 m), and there was no evidence that response movement resulted in a spiked detection histogram. Observers were more likely to feel confident in identifying seal and penguin species if the animals responded to the helicopter by changing the body posture or moving. In this application of aerial survey, the response behaviour elicited by the passing helicopter was considered to be beneficial from a technical perspective, and the disturbance caused to the surveyed populations negligible from an ethical perspective.

Carbon dating of basal peat deposits in Cumberland Bay and Stromness Bay and sediments from a lake in Stromness Bay, South Georgia indicates deglaciation at the very beginning of the Holocene before c. 9500 14C yr BP. This post-dates the deglaciation of one local lake which has been ice-free since at least 15 700 14C yr BP on account of its atypical geomorphological location. The latter indicates the likely presence of floristic refugia on South Georgia during the Last Glacial Maximum from which newly exposed terrestrial and aquatic habitats were rapidly colonized.