There was a time when science in Antarctica was king. The frozen continent was still the big unknown and almost any information, a measurement, an observation, a collection of samples was seen as new, exciting and accepted as a potentially valuable contribution to scientific knowledge. Words like ‘exploration’ and ‘survey’ could be uttered without shame in polite company and even in the presence of assessors. We all knew that national presences in Antarctica were predicated by political motives, but all Antarctic programmes were nevertheless promoted on the basis of their contribution to the scientific exploration of our planet. And so it has continued, until now.

Efficiency, effectiveness, value for money, importance - these seem to be the mantras of the present age. They are applied to all areas of human activity, including science, yet finding scientifically robust and independent methods of assessing them is difficult. In science how can we show that one group is more effective than another, that the ideas of one individual are more important than those of others, that money invested in one type of research provides better value than in another? In industry the success of most research is measured in new products and profits. But for blue-skies research whose outputs are papers in the scientific literature, the IS1 Citation Index and its various derivatives is still the principal quantitative method used. Its inadequacies for assessments have been detailed - wrong names, linked groups, variable half lives for different subjects, over citation of review and method papers etc. Yet, such is the simplicity ofthe system, many still use the citation value to decide on the destination of their next submission or the value of previously published material.

There are increasing commercial pressures to send more people to the Antarctic. Visitor numbers each summer now exceed scientist numbers on the continent. The commercial operators working through IAATO have, to date, been largely acting in an environmentally responsible manner, realising that there is no point killing the goose with the golden egg. In fact, it has been argued that visitors to the Antarctic, many of whom are wealthy or influential, have played a significant role in increasing environmental awareness of the continent and its wildlife to politicians and to the public.

ANTOSTRAT (the Antarctic Offshore Stratigraphy initiative) began 10 years ago as a collaborative study of Antarctic margin seismic data by offshore seismic profilers who set up an Antarctic Seismic Data Library System. It was soon realised that the ice-transported margin sediments retain a record of ice sheet history that could be recovered by direct sampling, and that ANTOSTRAT formed the springboard for a description of ice sheet history. ANTOSTRAT today aims to describe Antarctic climatic history over the past 100 million years or so. Of this history, by far the most important element is the Antarctic ice sheet, which probably formed 35 to 40 million years ago. Although geologically young, the ice sheet is still about ten times as old as Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. ANTOSTRAT's key aims are to establish when, how and why the Antarctic ice sheet formed.

Physical and chemical characteristics and solution geochemistry of major and trace elements were investigated in an area of volcanic soil colonized by mosses at Edmonson Point (central Victoria Land) during the international BIOTAS (Biological Investigations of Terrestrial Antarctic Systems) expedition (BIOTEX) in the 1995–96 summer. The broad objective was to study the environmental factors involved in plant colonisation and survival in terrestrial continental Antarctic ecosystems. The results showed that moss distribution and survival throughout the summer was closely dependent on water supply. In Antarctic coastal ecosystems the environmental biogeochemistry is largely dominated by ions of marine origin. At the drier end of a hydrological gradient the dry cushions of Hennediella heimii were encrusted with salts and showed much higher concentrations of soluble ions (Na+, Cl−, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42−, NO3−) than those in adhering soil particles or in other moss species from wetter parts of the transect. Although salt encrustations may partly derive from sublimation of surface snow, comparisons between concentrations of soluble ions in the dry moss and those in the < 2 mm fraction of surface and deep soil showed an upward migration along the soil profile of soluble ions as the substratum dried out, between December and January, and their accumulation mostly on mosses. At the wet end of the transect messes were less affected by salt encrustations and there was evidence of Ca2+ uptake and an active cycling of nutrients.

Temporal and spatial variations of the hydrogen peroxide accumulation were measured in off-shore waters and in intertidal rockpools near Jubany Station, King George Island, South Shetland Islands. As H2O2 photoformation is mainly driven by the short wavelength radiation in the UV-B and the UV-A range of the solar spectrum, the study was conducted between the beginning of October and the end of December 1995, the period of Antarctic spring ozone depletion. Wet deposition of H2O2 containing snow was identified as a major source of hydrogen peroxide in the surface waters of Potter Cove. As the concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in Potter Cove surface waters were low (121 ± 59 μmol Cl−1), when compared to the highly eutrophicated waters on the German Wadden coast (6000–7000 μmol Cl−1), direct UV-induced DOC photo-oxidation was of only limited significance in the Antarctic sampling site. Nonetheless, under experimental conditions, H2O2 photoformation in Potter Cove surface waters amounted to 90 ± 40 nmol H2O2 h−1 l−1 under a UV-transparent quartz plate. When high energy UV-B photons were cut-off by a WG320 filter formation continued at a rate of 66 ± 29 nmol H2O2 h−1 l−1 due to UV-A and visible light photons. Samples from freshly deposited snow contained between 10 000 and 13 600 nmol H2O2 l−1, and a snowfall event in mid November resulted in a maximum concentration of 1450 nmol H2O2 l−1 in the upper 10 cm layer of Potter Cove surface waters. Maximal H2O2 concentrations in intertidal rockpools were even higher and reached up to 2000 nmol H2O2 l−1 after the snowfall event. During a grid survey on December 17 1995, H2O2 concentrations and salinity displayed a north to south gradient, with higher concentrations and PSU at the south coast of the cove. The reasons for this spatial inhomogenety are as yet unknown, but may relate to a minor local input of photo-reactive organic matter from creeks entering the cove in the south-east, as well as to waste water discharge from the station, located on the south beach.

According to the newest version of the US Soil Taxonomy permafrost-affected soils are Gelisols. Antarctic Gelisols in the cold deserts of the Ross Sea sector are formed under extreme conditions of low temperature and aridity. The main soil forming processes are oxidation and salinization, with almost complete absence of organic matter. The oldest soils date from around 13 Ma. The origin of most soil salts is atmospheric, linking these soils to those in other parts of the world through atmospheric processes. The soils have water contents in the active layer of the most arid areas <1%. With decreasing latitude or proximity to the coast in East Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, soil water contents increase and the soils support a range of soil organisms and plant species. At latitudes ≤66°S organic matter accumulation and several other pedogenic processes such as cryoturbation, mineral weathering, brunification, acidification, podzolization and redoximorphism occur. In addition, these soils receive nitrogen and phosphorus from seabirds. In most places summer thaw lasts little more than six weeks; thaw depths range from around 10–100 cm. A critical factor in the soil development is the albedo of the soil surface, since the absorbed energy controls weathering processes. The extreme fragility of the soils in the arid Ross Sea sector is largely due to the absence of structure, cohesion, moisture and organic materials. Recovery from physical human disturbances is in the order of hundreds to thousands of years. In East Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula plant and organisms growth is similarly slow and ecosystems are susceptible to human impact. The occurrence of many old soils at high inland elevation indicates that little response to global climatic change would be expected there. For the much younger soils in East Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, when mean annual summer temperatures are higher, responses to global change and change in sea level may be significant.

Erect bryozoans are extremely abundant and diverse in polar waters and individual species may span a wide range in latitude and bathymetry. A number of aspects of lifestyle, including polypide recycling, embryo production, distribution, growth form and epibiosis were compared in three species of erect byozoans. These were collected from two locations; Signy Island (60°S) and Rothera Point, Adelaide Island (68°S) and a variety of depths. All three species were in similar stages of polypide cycling within and between the two sites. In the species Isosecuriflustra rubefacta and Nematoflustra flagellata the rate of brown body production (polypide generations) was slower at Signy Island than at Rothera Point. There was little difference between localities (within species) in the pattern of embryo production and no change in embryo size with depth. Embryos of I. rubefacta, however, were significantly larger at Rothera Point than at Signy Island. The proportion of the community occupied by each species changed with depth, but all three species occurred in shallower water at Rothera Point than at Signy Island. Fouling by epibionts decreased with increasing depth and from Signy Island to Rothera Point, both in terms of per cent cover and number of colonizing taxa. Possible trends with depth and latitude are compared with other studies involving bryozoans. The literature on Antarctic benthic taxa, in general, is also considered to determine whether trends within the Bryozoa are reflected in other groups.

Notothenioid fish of the artedidraconid genus Artedidraco are a little studied, component of the bottom fauna on the Antarctic continental shelf. Trawling in the south-western Ross Sea, especially in shallow areas with sponge beds, yielded a collection of 65 specimens of Artedidraco. These included all four species occurring in the Ross Sea as well as a new species. The new species Artedidraco glareobarbatus is described and illustrated. This species is most similar to A. orianae, but is distinguished by barbel morphology, by higher counts for dorsal rays and vertebrae, by lower counts for upper lateral-line scales and by colour pattern and visceral anatomy. A distinctive spotted colour morph of A. shackletoni is also documented and compared with the typical barred morph. Depth distribution and meristic variation among species of Artedidraco are summarized, and a taxonomic key to the six species is provided.

The diet of breeding white-chinned petrels was studied during the summers of 1996 and 1998 at South Georgia. Krill abundance/availability was high throughout 1996 but apparently low at the beginning of the 1998 breeding season. The diet of white-chinned petrels was similar between years and consistent with previous studies. Krill Euphausia superba (41–42% by weight) was the single most important prey item followed by fish (39–29%) and squid (19–25%). Meal mass was consistent (110 g in 1996, 119 g in 1998) between years but a significant decrease (46%) in feeding frequency in 1998 (0.54 meals day−1 compared to 0.75 meals day−1 in 1996) resulted in 19% less food delivered to chicks in 1998 than in 1996. Breeding success, however, was consistent between years at 44% and similar to that recorded previously at Bird Island. This is in contrast to black-browed and grey-headed albatrosses, both of which experienced almost total breeding failure in 1998. It is suggested that their varied and versatile feeding methods, together with their greater diving ability, capacity to feed at night and extensive foraging range, help white-chinned petrels minimise the effects of krill shortage.

Champsocephalus esox is the only icefish species found outside Antarctica. In a population from the Beagle Channel, the complete annual reproductive cycle has been determined. Gonad maturity stages have been established for males and females by histological analysis. Males are sexually mature from January–September with a maximum gonadosomatic index (GSI) of 3.63%. Histologically, testes are very homogeneous and the degree of maturation of the testicular cysts is similar among different tubules at the same maturation stage. Running ripe testes have mature sperm and a few spermatogoniae arranged near the blind end of the tubules. In sexually active females that are found from February–November, ovaries contain only ripe oocytes or postovulatory follicles, together with a batch of previtellogenic oocytes. During hydration, oocyte diameter reaches 2.7 mm, and oocyte dry weight increases due to material intake, the maximum GSI in ovulated ovaries is 21.89 and hepatosomatic index (HSI) decreases. These facts suggest a transfer of matter from liver to the gonads. Absolute fecundity ranges from 3303–8600 oocytes. Relative fecundity ranges from 22.5–43.5 oocytes per gram total weight. In C. esox, relative fecundity has a similar range to those quoted for the different C. gunnari populations, whilst mature oocyte diameter is small and reproductive season extended compared to the same parameters in other Channichthyidae.

Two specimens of Dolichiscus spinosetosus were collected by means of an Agassiz trawl and a small dredge in the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. This species is characterized by a large number of strong spines on the dorsal side, some of these possessing tubercular tips. The dorsum is characterized by many smaller and shorter blunt spines and numerous long simple setae all over the body (on spines, pereonites and pleotelson). Dolichiscus acanthaspidus Schultz, 1981 is the taxon most closely related to this new species, but the new species has more setae and tubercular spines on all parts of the body and two caudolateral spines instead of one behind the supraocular ones.

The RV Nathaniel B. Palmer was used for bottom trawling at depths of 100–1200 m during two recent cruises in the south-western Ross Sea. Although only 10 of 20 trawls were completely successful, a diverse collection of 979 specimens was obtained representing 47 species (36 notothenioids and 11 nonnotothenioids) and eight families. The collection included four new species, a new colour morph of a known species and eight rare species. The collection also established four new locality records, three second occurrences, three most southerly records and eleven new depth records for fish in the Ross Sea. Good taxonomic coverage for some groups was indicated by collection of all four species of Artedidraco, nine of ten bathydraconids and seven of eight channichthyids occurring in East Antarctica. The most abundant species were Trematomus scotti (29.7%), Bathydraco marri (10.4%), Trematomus eulepidotus (8.7%) and Dolloidraco longedorsalis (6.1%). Fish biomass was determined at two stations. The fish fauna of the Ross Sea south of the 1000-m isobath includes at least 80 species – 54 notothenioids and 26 non-notothenioids, approximately the same number as the Weddell Sea. Species diversity (H′ = 1.88) was higher than both the Weddell Sea and boreal regions. This collection indicates that, even in relatively shallow water, knowledge of specific and intraspecific diversity in the Ross Sea fauna is incomplete.

We have determined the base composition (percentage of guanine-cytosine base pairs, GC%) of total DNA from Euphausia superba to be 32% ± 0.5%. This is the lowest GC% recorded for a metazoan. Low GC% DNA has high concentrations of thymine (T) residues and consequently a greater abundance of adjacent T residues [T(n) arrays]. Ultraviolet B (280–320 nm, UV-B) radiation damages DNA primarily at (T)n arrays, so we suggest that krill DNA may be more susceptible to damage from increased levels of UV-B radiation over the Southern Ocean than the DNA of other Antarctic organisms.

Records (by a scientific observer on a longline fishing vessel around the Falkland Islands) of 86 different individually colour-banded wandering albatrosses from South Georgia, provide new insights into the use of the waters of the Patagonian shelf slope by birds from breeding grounds some 600 km to the south-east across the Antarctic Polar Front. Birds recorded were aged from 3–39 years, almost the full range (except 1 and 2 year olds) of South Georgia colour-banded birds, about 5% of whose colour-banded population was observed during the study. Immature birds (up to age 7 years) formed only 9% of the total; this may reflect relative absence from the area but might also relate to their subordinate status to adults at fishing vessels. Most birds seen were current breeders at South Georgia, including both sexes in the month prior to arrival on the breeding grounds (October), females during the pre-laying exodus (December) and both sexes during incubation (January) and throughout the main chick-rearing period (May, June, October). Only birds which had already failed were seen in the brooding period (March–April), when foraging trips are too short to reach the Falklands. Females outnumbered males in all these categories, supporting suggestions of different distributions of the sexes at sea during breeding. Birds of both sexes that had bred at South Georgia in the previous year were seen mainly between January and April. Birds that had not bred for at least three years were mainly males and mainly seen in January. These data indicate the importance of the waters near the Patagonian Shelf, especially around the Falklands, for wandering albatrosses from South Georgia, particularly breeding birds but also birds in their year(s) between breeding attempts. This is of particular relevance, given the globally threatened status of the species and the possibility of hydrocarbon exploitation in waters around the Falklands.

We analysed growth of the arborescent Antarctic cheilostome bryozoan Cellaria incula by stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis. The growth of one complete branch of C. incula takes one year, i.e. owing to the bifurcate colony structure two new branches grow from each branch of the previous generation. The maximum age of a C. incula colony is likely to be more than 14 years. Annual production-to-biomass ratio is 0.67, the highest value hitherto measured for any benthic invertebrate south of 62°S. Comparatively fast growth and high productivity identify C. incula as a pioneer species which is able to quickly occupy spatial niches produced by iceberg scouring on the Antarctic shelf.

A fine-scale survey of the distribution of free-living terrestrial arthropods in the Stillwell Hills region of Kemp Land, East Antarctica, was carried out between 22 December 1996 and 27 January 1997. Three species, all Acari, were recorded: Protereunetes maudae Strandtmann, Nanorchestes triclivatus Booth and N. lalae Strandtmann. Population densities varied from 0 to 6802 ind. m−2 with a mean of 954 ind.m−2. The favoured microhabitat was found to be beneath stones in damp locations on north- and west-facing slopes. Sites with microalgal growth supported more microarthropods than sites with mosses, lichens and macroalgae. Arid and saline habitats, including such sites as wind-sweptridges and the seashore, were found to lack microarthropods. Thermal and humidity profiles above and below the ground surface were recorded to investigate the microenvironments of Acari. Special attention was focused upon the moderating role of snow thickness, vegetation cover, aspect and vertical depth in the soil profile. These microclimate data suggest that Acari are able to avoid the extremes of low temperature experienced at macroclimate level but that heat stress and desiccation may play important limiting roles.

The seasonal changes of the nutrient regime and the development of algal communities in snow-covered fast ice and the underlying platelet layer was investigated in the eastern Weddell Sea during autumn, winter, and spring 1995. In the upper sea ice, an autumnal diatom community became enclosed during subsequent ice growth in winter, declined, and was replaced by a flagellate dominated community in spring. In this layer, nitrate was completely exhausted at the end of spring, although nutrients had been partly regenerated in early spring. The progressive congelation of platelet ice contributed significantly to sea ice growth thus influencing algal inoculation of the sea ice bottom. Biomass, present in the uppermost section of the platelet layer, could be found in the sea ice bottom after this section congealed to solid ice. After incorporation, species composition changed from larger and chain-forming species to species of smaller cell size. Concurrently, net growth rate slowed down from 0.07 day−1 within the platelet layer to 0.03 day−1 within the sea ice. Despite a thick snow cover of more than 20 cm, maximum biomass yield was 210 mg chl a m−2 in the platelet layer and 40 mg chl a m−2 in the sea ice respectively, while 95% of the latter was located within consolidated platelet ice. Total fast ice biomass observed here is significantly lower than that observed in snow-free fast ice of the Ross Sea, but because snow cover of the southern Weddell Sea is representative of most fast ice areas in the Antarctic, the data presented here are of general value.

The elemental and biochemical composition of eight moss species from the maritime Antarctic were determined fornightly (summer) or monthly (winter) from December 1992 to November 1994. Short-duration summer carbohydrate maxima in Calliergon sarmentosum were seen in both years, but no other seasonal patterns were observed. The absence of seasonality in carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations or their atomic ratios suggest that the mosses were nutrient-sufficient throughout the year, and that nutrient availability was not important in determining moss productivity. Mosses from hydric habitats had lower carbohydrate and higher protein, nitrogen and phosphorus contents than those from drier habitats, possibly as a consequence of higher productivity and continual flushing with nutrients in wet habitats. The results are consistent with the importance of water and the primacy of physical factors in the ecology of Antarctic mosses.

Meiofaunal community structure in coastal sediments of Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea) was related to quantity and biochemical composition of sedimentary organic matter. The sediments were generally characterized by large amounts of chloropigments and labile compounds (dominated by proteins), indicating high inputs of primary organic matter. Meiofaunal densities were very high and comparable to those from the most productive areas worldwide. Sediments with high densities of the scallop had low meiofaunal densities especially in the top 2 cm, suggesting that scallop clapping contributed to meiofauna resuspension. However, it is not possible to exclude the probability that meiofauna are part of the scallop beds apparently have an important role in structuring meiofaunal communities with nematodes dominant where Adamussium colbecki is absent, and gastrotrichs dominant (44–51%) in A. colbecki beds, reaching the highest density reported so far.