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The Roman mosaics of the Knossos Valley1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 September 2013

Rebecca Sweetman
Rebecca Sweetman
Affiliation:
University of St Andrews
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Abstract

Thirty Roman mosaics are now known from the Knossos Valley. The Villa Dionysos, with eight mosaics thus far uncovered, forms the largest coherent group. Recent work undertaken at the nearby bath house has revealed a small group of three mosaics. For the most part the remainder are isolated examples, commonly found during rescue excavation and often not well preserved. The mosaics range in date from the late first to the late third century AD and they display a variety of styles from black and white to polychrome and themes from simple geometric to complex figured designs. This paper presents a catalogue of the mosaics followed by a synthetic analysis, providing cultural evidence for the hitherto not well-understood Roman period of Knossos and adding to the corpus of mosaics in Greece.

Despite the limitations of such a study, imposed by the nature of the recovery of the material culture, it is possible, through an understanding of mosaic distribution, context and type, to make suggestions regarding the function of different areas within the city. An analysis of chronology and evidence for workshop production provides data for economic and cultural fluctuations and, importantly, a study of the mosaics helps to place Knossos within the broader context of the Roman Empire.

Type
Articles
Information
Annual of the British School at Athens , Volume 98 , November 2003 , pp. 517 - 547
Copyright
Copyright © The Council, British School at Athens 2003

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Footnotes

1

I should like to thank the following archaeologists who have generously made their unpublished material available to me for study for this article: J. Hayes, S. Hood, S. MacGillivray, S. Paton, H. Sackett, and K. Wardle. I am grateful to Karen Hartnup who corrected several versions of this text. I should particularly like to thank Sara Paton for her continued support for, and valued advice on, my work. My gratitude goes to all readers, known and anonymous, who have offered advice on this text. A database of the mosaic images can be found on the BSA website; www.bsa.gla.ac.uk

Special Abbreviations:

Dunbabin = K. M. D. Dunbabin, Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World (Cambridge, 1999).

French = E. B. French, ‘Archaeology in Greece, 1993–94’, AR 40 (1993–4), 3–83.

Hutchinson = R. W. Hutchinson, ‘Knossos’, BSAAR 1934–35.

KN Logbook = Logbook of chance archaeological finds and rescue excavations from the Knossos valley since the Second World War. Now housed in the Archives of the British School at Athens.

KS = S. Hood and D. Smyth, Archaeological Survey of the Knossos Area (BSA supp. vol. 14; London, 1981).

Paton A = S. Paton, ‘Roman Knossos and the Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus’, in D. Evely, H. Hughes-Brock, and N. Momigliano (eds), Knossos. A Labyrinth of History. Papers in Honour of Sinclair Hood (London, 1994), 141–53.

Paton B = S. Paton, ‘The Villa Dionysos at Knossos and its predecessors’, in W. G. Cavanagh, and M. Curtis (eds), J. N. Coldstream, and A. W. Johnston (eds), Post Minoan Crete, Proceedings of the First Colloquium on Post-Minoan Crete 10–11 November 1995 (BSA Studies 2; London, 1998), 123–8.

Ramsden = S. E. Ramsden, ‘Roman Mosaics in Greece, the Mainland and the Ionian Islands’ (unpublished Ph.D dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, London, 1971).

Sackett = L. H. Sackett (ed.), Knossos From Greek City to Roman Colony. Excavations at the Unexplored Mansion (BSA supp. 12; London, 1992).

Sanders = I. F. Sanders, Roman Crete (Warminster, 1982).

Tomlinson = R. A. Tomlinson, AR 42 (1995–6), 1–47, esp. 42.

Wardle = K. A. Wardle, ‘Knossos 2000: Report on Excavation and Study from 1993–97’ (privately circulated, 1998).

References

2 This publication is a result of an overall study of the Roman and Early Christian mosaics of Crete, Sweetman, R. J., ‘The Roman and Early Christian Mosaics of Crete’ (unpublished Ph.D dissertaion, Nottingham, 1999)Google Scholar; ead., ‘The evidence of itinerant craftspeople from the mosaics of Roman Crete’, in Paunier, D. and Schmidt, C. (eds), La Mosaïque gréco-Romaine VIII, Actes du VIIIème colloque international pour l'étude de la mosaïque antique et médiévale. Lausanne. 6–11 octobre 1997 (Cahiers d'archéologie romande 85–6; Lausanne, 2001), 249–60Google Scholar. Since many of these mosaics have yet to be published, this article focuses on Knossos, concluding with a brief comparison with the rest of Crete. Research on the mosaics of western Crete is ongoing. S. Markoulaki has published widely: ‘Οδός Πλαστήρα’, A. Delt. 38 (1983), 360–1Google Scholar; ead., ‘Οι ῾Ωρες καί οι Εποχές σε Ψηφιδωτό από το Καστέλλι Κισάμου’, Kretike Estia, 1 (1987), 3–58 Google Scholar; ead., ‘Καστέλλι Κισάμου’, A. Delt. 42 (1987)Google Scholar, Chr. 558–66; ead., ‘Προϊστορικές και Κλασικές Αρχαιότητες’, Kretike Estia, 2 (1988), 283–4Google Scholar; ead., ‘Αρχαιολοψικές ειδήσεις 1987’, Kretike Estia, 3 (1989/1990), 252–4Google Scholar; ead., ‘Ψηφιδωτά ‘‘Οικιάς Διονύσου’ ’ Στο μουσείο Χανιών’, Πεπραγμένα του Στ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίυ· Τομός A1. Χανιά: Αυγούατου 1986 (Χανιά, 1990), 449–63; ead., ‘Καστέλλι Κισάμου’, A. Delt. 46 (1991)Google Scholar, Chr. 415; ead., ‘Κίσαμος Κέντρο Yγείας’, Kretike Estia, 4 (1991/1993), 222 Google Scholar; ead., ‘Κοινοτικό οικόπεδο’, A. Delt. 48 (1993)Google Scholar, Chr. 481; ead., ‘Κίσαμος Κέντρο Yγείας’, Kretike Estia, 5 (1994), 217–20Google Scholar; ead., ‘A season mosaic in west Crete’, in Batalla, C. M. (ed.), VI Coloquio International sobre Mosaico Antiguo (Palencia-Mérida, octubre 1990) (Spain, 1997), 179–85Google Scholar.

3 The more fragmentary mosaics of the Roman bathhouse to the south of the Villa Dionysos is another such group.

4 The Late Antique mosaics of the Knossos Valley will appear in R. J. Sweetman ‘Late Antique Knossos. Understanding the development of the city: evidence of mosaics and religious architecture’, BSA 99, 2004 (forthcoming).

5 There is a wealth of material culture from Roman Knossos and although much of it has been published, with the exception of Pawn's and Bowsky's (Paton A, B, and see below, n. 96) (M. Baldwin Bowsky ‘Of two tongues: Acculturation at Roman Knossos’ presented at a seminar on Roman colonies in the Greek world, Pisa, November 2000) works, few synthetic publications on the cultural nature of Roman Knossos have been produced.

6 As the Villa Dionysos has been the focus of a research excavation and the mosaics form a coherent group, they will form the subject of a separate study which will present a detailed analysis of their dating, iconography, origin of the style, evidence of workshop production, architectural analysis and position within the broader context of Crete. This forth-coming publication will be referred to throughout this work, denoted by *.

7 Markoulaki, S., ‘Κίσαμος Κέντρο Yγείας’, Kretike Estia, 4 (1991/1993), 222 Google Scholar.

8 Paton A, 148; see also Frend, W. H. C. and Johnston, D. E., ‘The Byzantine Basilica Church at Knossos’, BSA 57 (1962), 168–238 Google Scholar. This point is discussed in more detail in R. Sweetman (see n. 4).

9 R. J. Sweetman 'Identification of space through a study of mosaics: a case study, Knossos, Crete: in proceedings of the conference ‘Building Communities: House, Settlement and Society in the Aegean and Beyond’ (BSA studies forthcoming).

10 See n 2.

11 For example it may help to define areas of occupation from industrial to residential to civic, and thus further define the population as such. To illustrate, the location of the Villa Dionysos, and its fine mosaics, suggest that its occupants may have played an important role in the running of the community.

12 www.bsa.gla.ac.uk.

13 Balmelle, C. et al. , Le Décor géometrique de la mosaïque romaine. Répertoire graphique et descriptif des compositions linéaires et isotropes (Paris, 1985)Google Scholar.

14 M. Gough excavated the domus in 1957, 1958, 1961 and 1971.

15 Paton B 124–6.

16 R. W. Hutchinson's excavations took place in the 1930s.

17 Ramsden 108 cat. 125.

18 Parrish suggests that the birds may be identified as a peacock, a partridge, a gallinule, and a wood pigeon. Parrish, D., The Seasons Mosaics of Roman North Africa (Rome, 1984), 28 n. 76Google Scholar.

19 Ramsden 94.

20 Hutchinson uncovered only the eastern section of the mosaic (Paton B, 126).

21 Paton's architectural study of the Villa Dionysos also suggests that this room is earlier than the rest of the domus (pers. comm.).

22 Paton B 124.

23 H. Payne, ‘Archaeology in Greece 1934–5’, JHS 55 = AR 1935, 135.

24 Paton B 126.

25 Ibid.

26 See below for details.

27 Pers. comm.

28 It is unlikely that this room functioned as a shrine room, it is more likely to have been a cubiculum: Paton B 127.

29 Ibid.

30 KS 91.

31 Dunbabin 211.

32 KS 91.

33 Sanders 53.

34 Ramsden 229–31.

35 Blake, M. E., ‘The pavements of the Roman buildings of the Republic and Early Empire’, MAAR 8 (1930), 7–161 Google Scholar, esp. 121; Becatti, G., Scavi di Ostia Vol, iv: Mosaici e pavimenti marmorei (Rome, 1961), 42–4Google Scholar.

36 Dunbabin 211.

37 French 75.

38 Tomlinson 42.

39 Ibid.

40 Ibid.

41 French 75.

42 Ibid, and Tomlinson 42

43 French 75.

44 Tomlinson 41.

45 The use of the evidence of the mosaics in the identification of the bathhouse as public or private is discussed below.

46 Pers comm.

47 I. Cret. iv. 28 records Satorninos, ΣΑΤΟΠΝΙΝΟΣ, Κρὴς Γορτύνιος

48 In a paper given at the Creta romana e prototrizantina congress, Iraklion, September 2000.

49 Scuola archeologica italiana di Atene, Creta antica (Rome, 1984)Google Scholar, fig. 21.

50 Halbherr, F., ‘Researches in Crete’, The Antiquary, 28 (1893), 110–12Google Scholar, esp. 111.

51 This is by no means certain, particularly because Halbherr's drawing does not quite reflect the orientation of the Civil Basilica.

52 Scuola archeologica italiana di Atene (n. 49), 61. I should like to thank Todd Whitelaw for bringing this reference to my attention.

53 KN Logbook, 73–8.

54 Halbherr (n. 49).

55 Sanders 53.

56 Åkerström-Hougen, G., The Calendar and Hunting Mosaics of the Villa of the Falconer in Argos. Studies in Early Byzantine Iconography (Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet: Athen, 4°, 13; Stockholm, 1974), 127 Google Scholar, pl. 10.

57 Ramsden, cat. 98, pl. 130.

58 Pernier, L., ‘L'Odeum, nell' Agora di Gortina presso il Leteo’, ASA 8–9 (1925–1926), 1–69 Google Scholar, esp. 65–7.

59 Sanders 53.

60 Ramsden 224.

61 Ibid., pl. 50.

62 Catling, H. W., ‘The Knossos Area, 1974–76’, AR 23 (1976–1977), 3–24, esp. 21Google Scholar.

63 Ibid.

64 Ibid.

65 Ibid.

66 Evans, , PM ii (London, 1928)Google Scholar, opp. 547.

67 KS 115.

68 Hogarth, D. G., ‘Early town and cemeteries’, BSA 6 (1899–1900), 70–85 Google Scholar, esp. pl. xii.

69 Sanders 53.

70 Hutchinson 5–7.

71 Held in the Archive of the British School at Athens.

72 The only available record of the mosaic consists of three black and white photographs in the Archive of the British School at Athens. I am grateful to Dr Whitelaw for bringing my attention to the third photograph in the archive, which identified the mosaic as that from Hutchinson's 1938 excavation.

73 Although this band probably functions as a border, it is also possible that it starts a second field of design. No conclusive evidence either way has come to light.

74 Markoulaki 1993 (n. 2), 481.

75 The date of the mosaic has not yet been published. However, a sign by the site states that the mosaic is dated to the 3rd c. Additionally, Markoulaki (n. 73) dates much of the material around the area to this period.

76 Daszewski, W. A., Corpus of Mosaics from Egypt, i (Mainz am Rhein, 1985)Google Scholar, cat. 38.

77 Held in the Archive of the British School at Athens.

78 KS 128.

79 Telegraph Pole Hole Book, 12. This is a record of some rescue excavations in the Knossos Valley. The book is currently housed in the Archive of the British School at Athens.

80 Ibid.

81 Sanders 153.

82 It is possible that only one mosaic existed and that Sanders identified the mosaic bedding in section as a second mosaic.

83 Waywell, G. B., ‘A Roman portrait bust from Knossos’, BSA 68 (1973), 295–6Google Scholar.

84 Hayes, KN Logbook, 39.

85 He was the foreman at Knossos for many years, and regularly informed the occupants of the Taverna at the British School of new finds.

86 Halbherr (n. 49); Hogarth (n. 67).

87 This is the excavation daybook (KKEis the site code).

88 Hayes, J. W., ‘Four early Roman groups from Knossos’, BSA 66 (1971), 248–75Google Scholar.

89 Ibid., 272.

90 Hayes (n. 87).

91 Ibid., 270.

92 Sackett 457.

93 Ibid.

94 There is a majority in the mid-2nd c. AD because 6 of the 8 are from the Villa Dionysos.

95 The latest pre-Christian mosaic is mosaic 16, which is dated to the late 3rd to early 4th c. AD.

96 These are discussed in a separate article.

97 Paton, S. and Schneider, R. M., ‘Imperial splendour in the Province: imported marble on Roman Crete’, in Chaniotis, A., (ed.) From Minoan Farmers to Roman Traders: Sidelights on the Economy of Ancient Crete (Stuttgart, 1999), 279–304 Google Scholar.

98 KS, p. 29.

99 Sackett 35, 47.

100 Paton B 127. Hayes, J. W., ‘The Villa Dionysos excavations, Knossos: the pottery’, BSA 78 (1983), 97–169 Google Scholar, esp. 99.Hayes notes that the destruction evidence suggests that parts of the Villa were abandoned at different periods.

101 Ibid., 103

102 KS, p. 29.

103 Hayes (n. 99), 99.

104 Sackett 25, 34, 53.

105 Coldstream, N., Knossos: the Sanctuary of Demeter (BSA supp. 8; London, 1973)Google Scholar.

106 Forster, G., ‘The Roman period’, in Coldstream, J. N., Eiring, L. J., and Forster, G., Knossos Pottery Handbook: Greek and Roman (BSA Studies 7; London, 2001), 137–67, esp. 138Google Scholar.

107 Sweetman, R. J., ‘The changing nature of Knossos: Roman to Early Christian—some problems’, Knossos: Palace, City, State. Proceedings of the Conference in Herakleion organised by the British School at Athens and the 23rd Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities of Herakleion, in November 2000, for the Centenary of Sir Arthur Evans's Excavations at Knossos (BSA Studies; forthcoming)Google Scholar.

108 In the case of the Sanatorium Basilica, there is also the matter of the commemoration of the earlier burials on the site of this Basilica as discussed by Frend in Frend and Johnston (n. 8).

109 Sanders 152; KS, p. 26.

110 The counter-arguments to the proposed population shift are put forward in Sweetman (n. 106).

111 From Halbherr's meagre descriptions of his investigations we can ascertain that there were a significant number of Roman building remains in the area (which he cleared) and at least one major public building, which may have been the Civil Basilica. Halbherr (n. 49).

112 Sackett 457.

113 It is not possible here to present all the evidence that could be used in order to produce a complete analysis of the function of space within the Knossos Valley. That is the subject for another article.

114 Within this domus, areas of public and private space have been identified on the basis of its mosaics. R. J. Sweetman, ‘Identification of space through a study of mosaics: a case study, Knossos, Crete’, in proceedings of the conference ‘Building Communities: House, Settlement and Society in the Aegean and Beyond’ (BSA Studies, forthcoming). It has also been identified as an official residence by Paton in Paton, S., ‘The Villa Dionysos at Knossos. A domus and its décor’, Πεπραγμένα του Η ´ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου· Τομός Α2 (Iraklion, 2000), 553–62Google Scholar.

115 Tomlinson 42.

116 Sackett 457.

117 Dunbabin 211.

118 The identification of common workshops is not easy; and for the purposes of this work I follow J. R. Clarke, who identifies three main factors suggesting a mosaic was produced in a particular workshop; external dating evidence, correspondence of motifs and manner of laying tesserae. J. R. Clarke, ‘Mosaic workshops at Pompeii and Ostia Antica’, 5th International Colloquium on Ancient Mosaics, Bath 5th–12th September 1987, ed. Johnson, P., Ling, R., Smith, D. J. (JRA Suppl. 2 vols; Ann Arbor, 1994–1995), 89–103 Google Scholar.

119 Sweetman 2001 (n. 2).

120 Markoulaki 1993 (n. 2).

121 Kathimerini, 30 Nov. 95.

122 Ibid.

123 Hadzi-Vallianou, D., Lebena: The Ancient City and the Shrine of Asclepius (Athens, 1989)Google Scholar.

124 Platon, N., ‘Ανασκαφαί εις Χανιά, Pόκκαν και Λίαου’, A. Delt. 16 (1960)Google Scholar, Chr. 272–3.

125 Tzedakis, G., ‘Νομός Χανίων’, A. Delt. 25 (1970)Google Scholar, Chr. 465–78.

126 Salies, G. Hellenkemper, ‘Römische Mosaiken in Griechenland’, B.Jb. 186 (1986), 241–85Google Scholar, esp. 269.

127 Markoulaki 1990 (n. 2), 449–63.

128 Ead., ‘Καστέλλι Κισάμου’ (n. 2).

129 Emblema-style.

130 Sweetman 1999 n. 2.

131 Sackett 467. Discussed in R. J. Sweetman, ‘The Romanization of Knossos: a study of mosaics and other material culture’, Πεπραγμένα του Θ´ Διεθνούς Κρητυλογικού Συνεδρίου (forthcoming).

132 Sanders 87.

133 Ibid.

134 Ibid.

135 There is a small number of mosaics which have been reported but since their dates have not yet been published, they have not been included here. Material published in the most recent A. Delt. (50) has been included in this list.

136 Sweetman 1999 (n. 2), 396–7.

137 Dunbabin 209.

138 Sweetman 2002 (n. 2), 255–6.

139 KS 110–12.

140 Paton and Schneider (n. 96).

141 Sweetman 1999 (n. 2).

142 Dunbabin 214.