A number of studies have investigated anticipatory behaviour in animals as a measure of sensitivity to reward or as an expression of emotional state. A common feature of many studies is that they base inferences on seemingly arbitrary measures, for example, the frequency of behavioural transitions (ie number of times an animal switches between different behaviours). This paper critically reviews the literature and discusses various hypotheses for why specific behavioural responses occur in the anticipatory period between the signal and reward in conditioned animals. We argue that the specific behaviours shown may be the result of superstitious learning and thus highly variable, leaving behavioural transitions as the only response that can be scored consistently, and that sometimes these responses may relate more to frustration than to a positive emotional state. Finally, we propose new research approaches to avoid potential confounds and improve future studies on this topic.

The welfare of juvenile Finnraccoons (Nyctereutes procyonoides ussuriensis) was compared between various housing conditions through the measurement of day-time behaviour and physiological variables. For the small control treatment (SC), Finnraccoons were raised in pairs in small cages; in the large area treatment (LA), in pairs in large cages; in the large control treatment (LC), in groups of four in large cages and in the large enrichment treatment (LE), in groups of four in large cages with access to a nest-box and a large tube, from weaning to pelting time. Study subjects consisted of a total of 152 Finnraccoons. As autumn progressed, day-time resting increased, especially allohuddling; while active behaviours decreased. Allohuddling was the most common type of resting; apart from in the LE treatment, resting shelters were used effectively alongside allohuddling. Locomotion was observed more frequently in LA and LC treatments, ie in large cages without shelters. The nest-box roof was preferred to the platform as an elevated location, and the nest-box to the tube as a resting shelter. Agonistic interactions were not observed. Males grew heavier than females and had heavier organs. No systematic differences in haematological and other physiological parameters were found between the treatments. Catching time was shortest in the SC treatment. The LE treatment compromised animals’ cleanliness. Based on the intensive positive social interactions and regular shelter use, group housing and access to resting shelters are recommended for juvenile Finnraccoons.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether linear and non-linear measures of heart rate variability (HRV) could be used as indicators of piglet castration pain. Thirty piglets were allocated to 1 of 4 treatments: i) sham castrated HRV (SHRV; n = 8); ii) surgical castrated HRV (CHRV; n = 7); iii) sham castrated blood collection (SBC; n = 7); or iv) surgical castrated blood collection (CBC; n = 8). Piglets in the SHRV and CHRV treatment groups underwent a 1-h HRV and postural behaviour evaluation on day-1, day 0 (castration treatment), day 1 and day 3 of the experimental procedure. Piglets in the SBC and CBC groups underwent blood collection for serum cortisol analysis at -0.5, 1, 2, 3, 24, 48 and 72 h relative to castration treatment. Castrated piglets (CHRV) exhibited greater low to high frequency ratio, lower sample entropy and greater percent determinism compared to SHRV piglets, indicating greater pain-related stress due to the surgical castration procedure. Serum cortisol was greater in CBC pigs at 1 h post-castration compared to SBC piglets. No effect of treatment was found for amount of time spent lying post-castration. In conclusion, surgically castrated pigs exhibited greater pain-related stress than their sham castrated counterparts. Additionally, non-linear HRV measures seem to complement traditional linear HRV measures and may be valuable for assessing pain-related stress in future studies investigating swine welfare.

The current literature on the behaviour, health, and management of companion dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) indicates that their welfare is often compromised. While there are many factors that have the potential to influence the welfare of companion dogs, carer behaviour is highly influential. Therefore, in order to improve the welfare of companion dogs, it is vital to understand the general and specific human factors that underpin carer behaviour. One such factor that has received little attention in the scientific literature is ‘duty of care’. This paper will firstly review several extant, empirically validated models of human behaviour including the Cognitive Hierarchy model, the Schwartz Theory of Basic Human Values, the Theory of Planned Behaviour, and Hemsworth and Coleman's Animal-Carer model. Secondly, by combining aspects of moral obligation and care, a strong theoretical argument will be presented for the role of ‘duty of care’ as a fundamental motivational driver of animal-carer behaviour. Finally, by integrating ‘duty of care’ with the aforementioned existing models, a hypothesised model of Pet Care Competency is presented, providing a more detailed representation of animal carer motivations than previously documented. Drawing together this wide range of behavioural research and psychological theory, the Pet Care Competency model provides a strong conceptual framework for future empirical investigation. Once the relevant values, beliefs, and attitudes that underpin ‘duty of care’ and contribute most strongly to an individual's Pet Care Competency are identified, this model can be utilised to inform behaviour change programmes that aim to improve carer behaviour and, consequently, dog welfare. By employing this model to identify and target the key elements of carer motivation, a more enduring outcome may be achieved than traditional knowledge-based interventions. This work has the potential to significantly improve the outcomes of animal welfare education and intervention programmes, warranting further exploration.

Surgical castration is a painful procedure that is routinely performed without pain relief on commercial pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) farms. Previous research has focused on quantifying piglet pain response through behaviours. However, to date, behavioural sampling methodologies used to quantify pain associated with castration have not been validated. Therefore, the objective of this study was to validate scan sampling methodologies (2-min, 3-min, 5-min, 10-min and 15-min intervals) to quantify piglet pain responses expressed by castrated piglets’ behaviour. A total of 39 Yorkshire-Landrace × Duroc male piglets (five days of age) were surgically castrated using a scalpel blade. Behaviour frequency and duration (scratching, spasms, stiffness, tail wagging and trembling) of each piglet were continuously collected for the first 15 min of the following hours relative to castration (-24, 1-8 and 24). To determine if the sampling interval accurately reflected true duration and frequency for each behaviour, as determined by continuous observation, criteria previously utilised from other behavioural validation studies were used: coefficient of determination above 0.9, slope not statistically different from one and intercept not statistically different from zero. No scan sampling interval provided accurate estimates for any behavioural indicators of pain. The results of this study suggest that continuous sampling is the most appropriate methodology to fully capture behaviour specific to pain associated with castration. Using validated behavioural methodologies in future research can assist in the development of objective, science-based protocols for managing pig pain.

Limited scientific literature is available for developing ‘best practice’ guidelines for the management of dairy goats (Capra hircus), particularly goat kids. Disbudding practices for kids and calves appear to be similar; however, it is important to recognise that kids are not small calves. Disbudding causes pain and is performed on calves and kids — welfare concerns surrounding disbudding affect both industries. In this review, we evaluate literature on disbudding of kids and calves and compare methodologies across the two species. In addition, we catalogue behavioural and physiological responses to disbudding and, finally, review alternatives to disbudding (or refinements). Although there may be certain similarities between the response of goat kids and calves to cautery disbudding, it is important to highlight the differences that do exist between the species to reduce the risk of potential detrimental effects (eg brain injury). Cautery disbudding is the most common and efficacious method of disbudding kids and calves; however, kids have thinner skulls and are disbudded at a younger age, which can increase the risk of thermal injury to the brain. Kids and calves show behavioural and physiological responses indicative of pain; however, variability in these responses between studies are likely due to differences in disbudding methodologies, study design and within-species variation. Effective pain mitigation strategies may differ across species; therefore, future research is needed to optimise pain mitigation strategies for kids. Currently, alternatives to cautery disbudding including: (i) selection for polled animals; (ii) managing horned animals; or (iii) the development of novel disbudding methods (eg cryosurgery, clove oil injection) have been deemed unsuitable by the industries as the methods are either impracticable or ineffective. Therefore, if disbudding is to continue, species-appropriate pain mitigation strategies need to be refined. Establishing best practice guidelines for disbudding kids requires managers to recognise that they are not small calves.

The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of the attitudes that those involved in the slaughter industry have towards animal welfare and animal welfare aspects of their work, and also to investigate if gender or characteristics of employment (eg previous training, role and experience) influence such views. A paper questionnaire consisting of 20 Likert items regarding either animal welfare or working in the slaughter industry and seven questions designed to gather information on participant gender and job characteristics was distributed to attendees at eleven Animal Welfare Officer (AWO) and Poultry Welfare Officer (PWO) courses run by the University of Bristol. Responses were received from 215 personnel involved in the slaughter industry. It was found that the views of the majority of the respondents towards animal welfare were positive. Being female, working routinely with mammals, having a longer period of time working in the industry, and having previous AWO/PWO training course experience were all associated with significantly more positive attitudes towards animals and working in the slaughter industry; while working with birds, and working in an enforcement or stockperson role had a significant negative influence on the response to some animal welfare- and employment-related statements. Although it should be considered that individuals attending an animal welfare course may already have an interest in animal welfare, the results suggest that gender and employment factors do influence attitudes to animal welfare in the slaughter industry, and that the origins and reasons for development of certain negative views warrant further investigation.

The aim of this study was to assess the interobserver reliability of the measures forming the Welfare Quality® animal welfare assessment protocol for sows and piglets. The study was carried out at nine farms in Northern Germany. Two trained observers evaluated identical animals simultaneously but independently in 40 joint farm visits. Interobserver reliability was calculated at individual animal level using Cohen's kappa, weighted kappa and the prevalence-adjusted, bias-adjusted kappa (PABAK) and at farm level using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (RS), the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), smallest detectable change (SDC) and limits of agreement (LoA). While a direct comparison of the adjectives of the qualitative behaviour assessment showed poor interobserver reliability, a Principal Component Analysis detected good interobserver reliability. The assessment of social and exploratory behaviours showed acceptable interobserver reliability, while the assessment of stereotypies displayed good interobserver reliability. The human-animal relationship test showed only poor interobserver reliability at individual animal and farm levels. In most cases, measures of health and physical state assessed in sows and piglets exhibited acceptable or good interobserver reliability. In conclusion, after some measures are revised, particularly those examining the human-animal relationship, the Welfare Quality® protocol for sows and piglets will represent a reliable approach in terms of interobserver reliability to assess the welfare of sows and piglets.

Temporary crating is considered as a step towards improved welfare in lactating sows. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate effects of confinement period (CP) and farrowing pen-type (PT) on health-related measures. Four hundred and thirteen sows were kept in five PT with four CP each: CP 0-sows were not confined; CP 3-sows were crated postpartum for three days; CP 4- and CP 6-sows were crated from a day prior to expected farrowing until day 4 and 6 postpartum, respectively. Alterations in different body regions were recorded when sows were moved to the pens and in weeks 1, 3 and 4 postpartum. CP 6-sows displayed significantly more lesions on their back than CP 0- and CP 3-sows. Odds ratios of teat lesions were markedly higher in CP 4-sows than in all other CP. Pen-type P (Pro Dromi) resulted in more neck/back/body side injuries, claw horn changes and lame sows compared to all other PT. High odds ratios were also found for neck injuries in PT K (Knick), shoulder sores in PT K and T (Trapez), injured teats in PT F (Flügel) and body side injuries in PT S (SWAP). The types of lesions found in the present study are similar to those reported for crates caused by pen structures. While an overall assessment of pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) production husbandry systems must also take piglet welfare into account, this study showed that keeping confinement periods as short as possible improves sow welfare and systems should be adapted to also cater for the needs of sows.