Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-16T12:17:46.215Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The welfare ethics of the commercial killing of free-ranging kangaroos: an evaluation of the benefits and costs of the industry

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2023

D Ben-Ami ,
K Boom ,
L Boronyak ,
C Townend ,
D Ramp ,
DB Croft  and
M Bekoff
D Ben-Ami*
Affiliation:
THINKK, The Think Tank for Kangaroos, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway 2007, NSW, Australia
K Boom
Affiliation:
THINKK, The Think Tank for Kangaroos, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway 2007, NSW, Australia
L Boronyak
Affiliation:
THINKK, The Think Tank for Kangaroos, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway 2007, NSW, Australia
C Townend
Affiliation:
THINKK, The Think Tank for Kangaroos, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway 2007, NSW, Australia
D Ramp
Affiliation:
School of the Environment, University of Technology, PO Box 123, Broadway 2007, NSW, Australia
DB Croft
Affiliation:
School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia School of the Environment, University of Technology, PO Box 123, Broadway 2007, NSW, Australia
M Bekoff
Affiliation:
Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0334, USA
*
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The commercial killing of kangaroos provides multiple benefits to society, but also causes both deliberate and unintended harms to kangaroos. The ethics of the kangaroo industry is assessed in terms of whether the assumed benefits justify the welfare costs. An analysis of the stated benefits indicates that killing for damage mitigation is beneficial mainly during drought and not at current levels; that there is a commercial value, although considerably lower than previously estimated, and that demonstrable environmental benefits from commercial killing of kangaroos are lacking; and that the commercial kill may ameliorate the suffering of kangaroos during drought. Welfare practices are very difficult to assess and regulate due to the size and remote nature of the industry. A combination of empirical data on welfare outcomes and inferences drawn from behavioural and reproductive knowledge of the commercially killed species are utilised to assess harm. The welfare costs include deliberate and indirect harm to dependent young (a by-product of the commercial kill), and a number of unintended harms to adult kangaroos, including increased mortality during drought, inhumane killing of a portion of adult kangaroos, and a disruption of social stability and the evolutionary potential of individuals. Furthermore, a substantial gap exists between the intended welfare standards of the code of practice governing the kangaroo industry and the welfare outcomes for both dependent young and adult kangaroos. We found that, on balance, the benefits are lower than expected and the welfare costs are likely to be considerably higher than acceptable. More research, particularly at the point of kill, is necessary to verify and assess the extent of harms. A number of improvements are suggested to the code of practice to improve welfare outcomes.

Keywords

animal welfarecommercialethicsharvestindustrykangaroo
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 23 , Issue 1 , February 2014 , pp. 1 - 10
Copyright
© 2014 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

ABARE 2010 Report provided upon request, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Ampt, P and Baumber, A 2006 Building connections between kangaroos, commerce and conservation in the rangelands. Australian Zoologist 33: 398–409CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anon 2010a Conservation and animal welfare: consensus statement and guiding principles. Animal Welfare 19: 191–19210.1017/S0962728600001445CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anon 2010b Official Committee Hansard: Senate, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Legislation Committee. Australian Senate: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Anon 2011 The Australian Animal Welfare Strategy and National Implementation Plan 2010-14. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forrestry: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Anon 2013 AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals: 2013 Edition. American Veterinary Medical Association: Schaumburg, II, USAGoogle Scholar
Banks, PB, Newsome, AE and Dickman, CR 2000 Predation by red foxes limits recruitment in a population of eastern grey kangaroos. Austral Ecology 25: 283–291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2000.01039.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barton, PS, Manning, AD, Gibb, H, Lindenmayer, DB and Cunningham, SA 2009 Conserving ground-dwelling beetles in an endangered woodland community: multi-scale habitat effects on assemblage diversity. Biological Conservation 142(8): 1701–1709. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumber, A, Cooney, R, Ampt, P and Gepp, K 2009 Kangaroos in the rangelands: opportunities for landholder collaboration. The Rangeland Journal 31: 161–167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/RJ08045CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bekoff, M 2010 The Animal Manifesto: Six Reasons for Expanding Our Compassion Footprint. New World Library: Novato, California, USAGoogle Scholar
Ben-Ami, D 2009 A Shot in the Dark: A Report on Kangaroo Harvesting. Animal Liberation NSW: Sydney, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Ben-Ami, D, Croft, BD, Ramp, D and Boom, K 2010 Advocating Kangaroo Meat: Towards Ecological Benefit or Plunder? THINKK, The University of Technology Sydney: Ultimo, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Bilton, AD and Croft, DB 2001 Lifetime Reproductive Success in a Population of Female Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufus) in the Sheep Rangelands of Western New South Wales; Environmental Effects and Population Dynamics. Recent Advances in Scientific Knowledge of Kangaroos. UNSW: Sydney, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Bilton, AD and Croft, DB 2004 Lifetime reproductive success in a population of female red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) in the sheep rangelands of western New South Wales: environmental effects and population dynamics. Australian Mammalogy 26: 45–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/AM04045CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BOM 2012a El Niño: Detailed Australian Analysis. Bureau of Meteorology: Canberra, ACT, Australia. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/enlist/Google Scholar
BOM 2012b Special Climate Statement 38. Australia's Wettest Two- Year Period on Record; 2010-2011. National Climate Centre, Bureau of Meteorology: Canberra, ACT, USAGoogle Scholar
Boom, K and Ben-Ami, D 2011 Shooting our wildlife: an analysis of the law and its animal welfare outcomes for kangaroos & wallabies. Australian Animal Protection Law Journal 4: 44Google Scholar
Boom, K, Ben-Ami, D, Croft, DB, Cushing, N, Ramp, D and Boronyak, L 2012 ‘Pest’ and resource: a legal history of Australia's kangaroos. Animal Studies Journal 1: 15–40Google Scholar
Bradshaw, EL and Bateson, P 2000 Welfare implications of culling red deer (Cervus elaphus). Animal Welfare 9: 3–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calaby, JH and Grigg, GC 1989 Changes in acropodoid communities and populations in the past 200 years, and the future. In: Grigg, G, Jarman, P and Hume, I (eds) Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-Kangaroos pp 813–820. Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Caughley, G, Grigg, GC and Smith, L 1985 The effect of drought on kangaroo populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 40: 290–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3800428CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caughley, G, Short, J, Grigg, GC and Nix, H 1987 Kangaroos and climate: an analysis of distribution. Journal of Animal Ecology 56: 751–761. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4946CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, M 2003 Kangaroos and feral goats as economic resources for graziers: some views from a Southwest Queensland. Rangeland Journal 25: 20–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/RJ03003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, JR, Langford, DG and Gibson, DF 1994 Capture myopathy in Lagorchestes hirsutus (Marsupilia: Macropdidae). Australian Mammalogy 17: 137–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooney, R, Baumber, A, Ampt, P and Wilson, G 2009 Sharing Skippy: how can landholders be involved in kangaroo production in Australia? The Rangeland Journal 31: 283–292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/RJ08025CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, DB 2000 Sustainable use of wildlife in western New South Wales: possibilities and problems. Rangeland Journal 22(1): 88–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/RJ0000088CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, DB 2004 Kangaroo management: individuals and communities. Australian Mammalogy 26: 101–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, DB 2005 The future of kangaroos: going, going, gone? In: Wilson, M and Croft, DB (eds) Kangaroos Myths and Realities pp 223–243. The Australian Wildlife Protection Council Incorporated: Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Croft, DB, Montague-Drake, R and Dowle, M 2007 Biodiversity and water point closure: is the grazing piosphere a persistent effect? In: Dickman, CR, Lunney, D and Burgin, S (eds) Animals of Arid Australia: Out There on Their Own? pp 143–171. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mossman, Australia10.7882/FS.2007.047CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, DB and Snaith, F 1991 Boxing in red kangaroos, Macropus rufus: aggression or play? International Journal of Comparative Psychology 4: 221–236Google Scholar
Daoust, P, Crook, A, Bollinger, T, Campbell, K and Wong, J 2002 Animal welfare and the harp seal hunt in Atlantic Canada. Canadian Veterinary Journal 43: 687–694Google ScholarPubMed
Dawson, TJ 1989 Diets of Macropodoid Marsupials: General Patterns and Environmental Influences. Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-Kangaroos. Surrey Beatty and Sons: Chipping Norton, UKGoogle Scholar
Dawson, TJ 1995 Kangaroos: Biology of the Largest Marsupial. University of New South Wales Press: Sydney, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Dawson, TJ and Ellis, BA 1996 Diets of mammalian herbivores in Australian arid, hilly shrublands: seasonal effects on overlap between euros (hill kangaroos), sheep and feral goats, and on dietary niche breadths and electivities. Journal of Arid Environments 34: 491–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0127CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Department for Environment and Heritage 2007 The Kangaroo Conservation and Management Plan for South Australia 2008-2012. Government of South Australia: Adelaide, SA, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Department of Environment and Climate Change 2007 New South Wales Commercial Kangaroo Harvest Management Plan 2007-2011. Department of Environment and Climate Change: Sydney, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Department of Environment and Natural Resources 2010 2011 Commercial Kangaroo Harvest Quota Report for South Australia. Department of Environment and Natural Resources: Adelaide, SA, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Department of Environment and Resource Management 2011 Queensland Commercial Macropod Management Program, Annual Report 2010. Department of Environment and Resource Management: QLD, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Department of Environment Water Heritage and Climate Change 2009 Kangaroo and Wallaby Harvesting Statistics. Australian Government: Canberra, ACT, Australia. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/wild-harvest/kangaroo/stats.htmlGoogle Scholar
Diesch, TJ, Mellor, DJ, Johnson, CB and Lentle, RG 2010 Developmental changes in the electroencephalogram and responses to a noxious stimulus in anaesthetized tammar wallaby joeys (Macropus eugenii eugenii). Laboratory Animals 44(2): 79–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/la.2009.009045CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DSEPC 2010 Kangaroos and Wallabies. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Population and Communities: Canberra, ACT, Australia. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/wild-harvest/kangaroo/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Edwards, GP, Croft, DB and Dawson, TJ 1995 The dietary overlap between red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) and sheep (Ovis aries) in the arid rangelands of Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 20: 324–334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1995.tb00544.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, GP, Dawson, TJ and Croft, DB 1996 Competition between red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) and sheep (Ovis aries) in the arid rangelands of Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 21: 165–172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1996.tb00597.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Environment and Resource Management 2007 Wildlife Trade Management Plan for Export, Commercially Harvested Macropods: 2008-2012. Environment and Resource Management, QLD, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Fensham, RJ and Fairfax, RJ 2008 Water-remoteness for grazing relief in Australian arid-lands. Biological Conservation 141(6): 1447–1460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.03.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, DO, Blomberg, SP and Owens, IPF 2003 Extrinsic versus intrinsic factors in the decline and extinction of Australian marsupials. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B 270: 1801–1808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2003.2447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foster, M 2009 Emerging animal and plant industries, their value to Australia. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Francione, G 2000 Introduction to Animal Rights: Your Child or Your Dog. Temple University Press: Philadelphia, USAGoogle Scholar
Fraser, D 2010 Toward a synthesis of conservation and animal welfare science. Animal Welfare 19: 121–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, D and MacRae, AM 2011 Four types of activities that affect animals: implications for animal welfare science and animal ethics philosophy. Animal Welfare 20: 581–590CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukuda, Y, McCallum, HI, Grigg, GC and Pople, AR 2010 Fencing artificial waterpoints failed to influence density and distribution of red kangaroos (Macropus rufus). Wildlife Research 36: 457–465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WR08122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garnaut, R 2007 Garnaut Climate Change Review. Issues Paper 1 Climate Change: Land Use: Agriculture and Forestry. Australian Greenhouse Office: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Gibson, LM and Young, MD 1987 Kangaroos: Counting the Cost. Report to Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. CSIRO: Deniliquin, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Gill, RB 2000 Managing wildlife ethics issues ethically. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 5: 72–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10871200009359196CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, N 2004 Physiology and Behaviour of Animal Suffering, Universities Federation for Animal Welfare: Wheathampstead, Herts, UK. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470752494CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grigg, GC 1989 Kangaroo harvesting and the conservation of arid and semi-arid rangelands. Biological Conservation 3: 194–197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1989.tb00072.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grigg, GC 1997 A crossroads in kangaroo politics. Australian Biologist 10: 12–22Google Scholar
Grigg, GC 2002 Conservation benefit from harvesting kangaroos: status report at the start of a new millennium, a paper to stimulate discussion and research. In: Lunney, D and Dickman, C (eds) A Zoological Revolution. Using Native Fauna to Assist in its Own Survival pp 53–76. Royal Zoological Society of NSW: Mossman, NSW, AustraliaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herbert, CA and Elzer, A 2011 Review of Scientific Literature Relevant to the Commercial Harvest Management of Kangaroos. Office of Environment and Heritage, Department of Premier and Cabinet: Sydney, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Higginbottom, KB and Croft, DB 1999 Social learning in marsupials. In: Box, HO and Gibson, KR (eds) Mammalian Social Learning: Comparative and Ecological Perspectives pp 80–101. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UKGoogle Scholar
Higginbottom, KB and Douglass, SN 2010 Monitoring the fate of translocated eastern grey kangaroos at the Gold Coast. In: Graeme, C and Mark, E (eds) Macropods: The Biology of Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-Kangaroos pp 341–348. CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, VIC, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Kelly, J 2005 Kangaroo Industry Strategic Plan. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation: Barton, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Kirkwood, JK, Sainsbury, AW and Bennett, PM 1994 The welfare of free-living wild animals: methods of assessment. Animal Welfare 3: 257–273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landsberg, J, O’Connor, T and Freudenberger, D 1999 The impacts of livestock grazing on biodiversity in natural ecosystems. In: Jung, HJ and Fahey, GC (eds) Nutritional Ecology of Herbivores pp 752–777. American Society of Animal Science: Savoy, IL, USAGoogle Scholar
Letnic, M and Crowther, SM 2012 Patterns in the abundance of kangaroo populations in arid Australia are consistent with the exploitation ecosystems hypothesis. Oikos 122: 761–769. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.20425.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littin, KE 2010 Animal welfare and pest control: meeting both conservation and animal welfare goals. Animal Welfare 19: 171–176CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littin, KE and Mellor, DJ 2005 Strategic animal welfare issues: ethical and animal welfare issues arising from the killing of wildlife for disease control and environmental reasons. Scientific and Technical Review 24: 767–782Google ScholarPubMed
Lunney, D 2010 A history of the debate (1948-2009) on the commercial harvesting of kangaroos, with particular reference to New South Wales and the role of Gordon Grigg. Australian Zoologist 35: 383–430CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathews, F 2010 Wild animal conservation and welfare in agricultural systems. Animal Welfare 19: 159–170CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCallum, H 1995 Would property rights over kangaroos necessarily lead to their conservation? Implications of fisheries models. In: Grigg, G, Hale, P and Lunney, D (eds) Conservation Through Sustainable Use of Wildlife pp 215–223. The Centre for Conservation Biology, University of Queensland: Brisbane, QLD, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
McLeod, R 2004 Counting the Cost: Impact of Invasive Animals in Australia, 2004. Cooperative Research Centre for Pest Animal Control: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
McLeod, S 2010 Is kangaroo management justified and humane? What are the concerns and how can they be addressed? RSPCA Australia Scientific Seminar 2010, RSPCA Australia. Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Messmer, TA, Cornicelli, L, Deker, DJ and Hewitt, DG 1997 Stakeholder acceptance of urban deer management techniques. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25: 360–366Google Scholar
Montague-Drake, R and Croft, DB 2004 Do kangaroos exhibit water-focused grazing patterns in arid new south wales? A case study in Stuart National Park. Australian Mammalogy 26: 87–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munn, A and Dawson, TJ 2003 Energy requirements of the red kangaroo (Macropus rufus): impacts of age, growth and body size in a large desert-dwelling herbivore. Journal of Comparative Physiology 173: 575–558Google Scholar
Munn, AJ and Dawson, TJ 2010 Mechanistic explanations for the drought-related mortality of juvenile red kangaroos (Macropus rufus): implications for population dynamics and modelling. In: Coulson, G and Eldridge, M (eds) Biology of Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos pp 117–126. CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, VIC, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
National Health and Medical Research Council 2004 Australian Code of Practice for the Care and use of animals for Scientific Purposes 7th Edition 2004. National Health and Medical Research Council: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Newsome, AE 1965 Reproduction in natural populations of the red kangaroo, Megaleia rufa (Desmarest), in central Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology 13: 735–759. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ZO9650735CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newsome, AE 1977 The ages of non-breeding red kangaroos. Australian Wildlife Research 4: 7–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WR9770007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowak, R, Porter, RH, Lévy, F, Orgeur, P and Schaal, B 2000 Role of mother-young interactions in the survival of offspring in domestic mammals. Reviews of Reproduction 5: 151–163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/ror.0.0050153CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, P and Low, T 2006 Update on Current State of Scientific Knowledge on Kangaroos in the Environment, Including Ecological and Economic Impact and Effect of Culling, Kangaroo Management Advisory Panel: Dubbo, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Poole, WE 1973 A study of breeding in grey kangaroos, Macropus giganteus (Shaw) and M. fuliginosus (Desmarest), in central New South Wales. Australian Journal of Zoology 21: 183–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ZO9730183CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, WE 1975 Reproduction in the two species of grey kangaroos, Macropus giganteus (Shaw) and M.fuliginosus (Desmarest) II. Gestation, parturition and pouch life. Australian Journal of Zoology 22: 277–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ZO9740277CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pople, AR 1996 Effects of harvesting upon the demography of red kangaroos in western Queensland. PhD Thesis, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Pople, AR 2004 Population monitoring for kangaroo management. Australian Mammalogy 26: 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/AM04037CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pople, AR 2006 Modelling the Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Kangaroo Populations for Harvest Management. Department of Environment and Heritage: Canberra. ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Pople, AR, Cairns, SC and McLeod, SR 2010 Increased reproductive success in older female red kangaroos and the impact of harvesting. Australian Zoologist 35: 160–165. http://dx.doi.org/10.7882/AZ.2010.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pople, T and Grigg, G 1999 Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts: Canberra, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Provenza, FD 2003 Foraging Behaviour: Managing to Survive in a World of Change. Logan, Department of Forest, Range and Wildlife Services Utah State University: USAGoogle Scholar
Reilly, JS 1993 Euthanasia of Animals used for Scientific Purposes. Australia and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART): Adelaide, SA, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
RSPCA 2002 Kangaroo Shooting Code Compliance.4.4.4.2. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/publications/kangaroo-report/field-inspections.html#432 http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/publications/kangaroo-report/field-inspections.htmlGoogle Scholar
RSPCA Australia 2002 A Survey of the Extent of Compliance with the Requirements of the Code of Practice for the Humane Shooting of Kangaroos. RSPCA Australia: Deakin West, ACT, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Russel, G 2008 Comment on Wilson and Edwards’ proposal for low-emission meat. Conservation Letters 1: 244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00034.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, EM 1989 Maternal behaviour in the Macropodoidea. In: Grigg, G, Jarman, P and Hume, I (eds) Kangaroos, Wallabies and Ratkangaroos pp 549–569. Surrey Beatty: NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Sankoff, P and Steven, W 2009 Animal Law in Australasia, A New Dialogue. The Federation Press: Sydney, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport Committee 1998 Commercial Utilisation of Australian Native Wildlife, Executive Summary. Parliament of Australia, Senate: Canberra, ACT, USAGoogle Scholar
Sharman, GB and Pilton, PE 1964 The life history and reproduction of the red kangaroo (Megaleia rufa). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 142: 29–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111.j.1469-7998.1964.tb05152.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheehan, P 2009 A bloody mob of hypocrites. Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Publishing Ltd: Sydney, NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Shepherd, N 1987 Condition and recruitment of kangaroos. In: Caughley, G, Shepherd, N and Short, J (eds) Kangaroos Their Ecology and Management in the Sheep Rangelands of Australia pp 135–158. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511898082.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepherd, NC 1983 The feasibility of farming kangaroos. Australian Rangelands Journal 5(1): 35–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/RJ9830035CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepherd, NC, Hopwood, PR and Dostine, PL 1988 Capture myopathy: 2 techniques for estimating its prevalence and severity in red kangaroos, Macropus rufus. Wildlife Research 15: 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WR9880083CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sloane Cook and King Pty Ltd 1988 The Economic Impact of Pasture Weeds, Pests and Diseases on the Australian Wool Industry. Consultant Report to the Australian Wool Corporation, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Storz, JE 1999 Genetic consequences of mammalian social structure. Journal of Mammalogy 80: 553–569. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1383301CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuart-Dick, RI and Higginbottom, KB 1989 Strategies of parental investment in macropodoids. In: Grigg, G, Jarman, P and Hume, I (eds) Kangaroos, Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos pp 571–592. Surrey Beatty & Sons: NSW, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Thomsen, DA and Davies, J 2007 Rules, norms and strategies of kangaroo harvest. Australasian Journal of Environmental Management 14: 123–133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyndale-Biscoe, CH 2005 Life of Marsupials. CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, VIC, AustraliaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Ree, R, Jaeger, JAG, van der Grift, EA and Clevenger, AP 2011 Effects of roads and traffic on wildlife populations and landscape function: road ecology is moving towards larger scales. Ecology and Society 16: 48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warburton, B and Norton, BG 2009 Towards a knowledge-based ethic for lethal control of nuisance wildlife. Journal of Wildlife Management 73: 158–164. http://dx.doi.org/10.2193/2007-313CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weldon, I 2008 Why doesn't animal protection legislation protect animals? (and how it's getting worse). Australian Animal Protection Law Journal 9: 1Google Scholar
Wilson, RG and Edwards, JM 2008 Native wildlife on rangelands to minimize methane and produce lower-emission meat: kangaroos versus livestock. Conservation Letters 1: 119–128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00023.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witte, I 2005 Kangaroos misunderstood and maligned reproductive miracle. In: Wilson, M and Croft, BD (eds) Kangaroos Myths and Realities pp 188–207. The Australian Wildlife Protection Council Incorporated: Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Young, MD 1984 Rangeland administration. In: Harrington, GN, Wilson, AD and Young, MD (eds) Management of Australia's Rangelands. CS1RO: Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaGoogle Scholar