Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-f46jp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-04T18:04:55.324Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Negative affective states and their effects on morbidity, mortality and longevity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2023

MD Walker ,
G Duggan ,
N Roulston ,
A Van Slack  and
G Mason
MD Walker*
Affiliation:
Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
G Duggan
Affiliation:
Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
N Roulston
Affiliation:
Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
A Van Slack
Affiliation:
Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
G Mason
Affiliation:
Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
*
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Mortality rates are often used in population-level animal welfare assessments because they are assumed to reflect rates of disease or injury and other problems likely to cause poor welfare. High mortality is thus assumed to correlate with factors likely to cause negative affective states. Here, we argue that negative affective states are also related to mortality rates more directly, via causal rather than merely correlational routes. In humans, negative affective states predict elevated morbidity and mortality rates as well as decreased longevity, while self-reported happiness does the opposite. This review investigates whether mortality rates and longevity can thus be used to make inferences regarding past affective states in animals. The proposed mechanism is that chronic stressors cause negative affective states and thence harmful physiological consequences through continual activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and sympathetic-adreno-medullary axes, which in turn can lead to increased mortality. The convergent validity of mortality as an indicator of past negative affect is demonstrated via examples of how stressors such as bereavement in humans and social isolation in social non-human species cause negative affective states, and then increase the morbidity of potentially lethal conditions such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and HIV/AIDS, ultimately leading to increased mortality and reduced longevity in both humans and animals. The potential drawbacks of using mortality rates to infer animal welfare are also discussed, including its low sensitivity and the multiplicity of factors unrelated to affective states that can influence mortality rates. However, providing these issues are accounted for, it is suggested that this indicator has value in welfare assessment, and is especially well suited for cases where animals are allowed to live out their natural lifespans, such as tends to be the case with zoo and companion animals.

Keywords

animal welfarelongevitymorbiditymortalitynegative affectstressors
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 21 , Issue 4 , November 2012 , pp. 497 - 509
Copyright
© 2012 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aaltonen, K, Bryant, AA, Hostetler, JA and Oli, MK 2009 Reintroducing endangered Vancouver Island marmots: survival and cause-specific mortality rates of captive-born versus wildborn individuals. Biological Conservation 142: 2181–2190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.04.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alboni, P and Alboni, M 2006 Psychosocial factors as predictors of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events: contributions from animal models. Giornale Italiano Cardiologia 7(11): 747–753Google ScholarPubMed
Anda, R, Williamson, D, Jones, D, Macera, C, Eaker, E, Glassman, A and Marks, J 1993 Depressed affect, hopelessness, and the risk of ischemic heart disease in a cohort of U.S. adults. Epidemiology 4(4): 285–294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001648-199307000-00003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antoni, MH, Lutgendorf, SK, Cole, SW, Dhabhar, FS, Sephton, SE, McDonald, PG, Stefanek, M and Sood, AK 2006 The influence of bio-behavioural factors on tumour biology: pathways and mechanisms. Nature Reviews Cancer 6(3): 240–248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc1820CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berkman, L, Leo-Summers, L and Horwitz, R 1992 Emotional support and survival after myocardial infarction. Annals of Internal Medicine 117(12): 1003–1009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capitanio, J, Mendoza, S, Lerche, N and Mason, W 1998 Social stress results in altered glucocorticoid regulation and shorter survival in simian acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 95: 4714–4719. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.8.4714CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlstead, K, Fraser, J, Bennet, C and Kleiman, D 1999 Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in U.S. zoos: II. behaviour, breeding success, and mortality in relation to housing facilities. Zoo Biology 18: 35–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI) 1098-2361(1999)18:1<35::AID-ZOO5>3.0.CO;2-L3.0.CO;2-L>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castro, WLR and Matt, KS 1997 Neuroendocrine correlates of separation stress in the Siberian Dwarf Hamster (Phodopus sungorus). Physiology & Behaviour 61: 477–484. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9384(96)00456-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cavigelli, SA and McClinktock, MK 2003 Fear of novelty in infant rats predicts adult corticosterone dynamics and an early death. PNAS 100(26): 16131–16136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2535721100CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavigelli, SA, Yee, JR and McClintock, MK 2006 Infant temperament predicts life span in female rats that develop spontaneous tumors. Hormones and Behavior 50: 454–462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chauvin, C, Hillion, S, Balaine, L, Michel, V, Peraste, J, Petetin, I, Lupo, C and Le Bouquin, S 2011 Factors associated with mortality of broilers during transport to slaughterhouse. Animal 5(2): 287–293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1751731110001916CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chin, Y, Lee, H and So, E 2011 Suicidal ideation and associated factors by sex in Korean adults: a population based cross-sectional survey. International Journal of Public Health 56(4): 429–439. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00038-011-0245-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christensen, NJ and Galbo, H 1983 Sympathetic nervous activity during exercise. Annual Review of Physiology 45: 139–153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ph.45.030183.001035CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clubb, R, Rowcliffe, M, Lee, P, Mar, K, Moss, C and Mason, G 2008 Compromised survivorship in zoo elephants. Science 322: 1649. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1164298CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clubb, R, Rowcliffe, M, Lee, P, Mar, K, Moss, C and Mason, G 2009 Fecundity and population viability in female zoo elephants: problems and possible solutions. Animal Welfare 18: 237–247Google Scholar
Cohen, S, Line, S, Manuck, SB, Rabin, BS, Heise, ER and Kaplan, JR 1997 Chronic social stress, social status, and susceptibility to upper respiratory infections in nonhuman primates. Psychosomatic Medicine 59: 213–221CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, D and Kahn, M 2010 Health, wartime stress, and unit cohesion: evidence from Union Army veterans. Demography 47(1): 45–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/dem.0.0095CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawkins, MS 1988 Behavioural deprivation: a central problem in animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 20: 209–225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(88)90047-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Detillion, C, Craft, T, Glasper, E, Prendergast, B and DeVries, A 2004 Social facilitation of wound healing. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29: 1004–1011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2003.10.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diener, E and Chan, MY 2011 Happy people live longer: subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being 3: 1–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.xGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, R 2003 Experiences of older burglary victims. Home Office: Research, Development, and Statistics Directorate 198: 1–4Google Scholar
Dreschel, NA 2010 The effects of fear and anxiety on health and lifespan in pet dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 125(3-4): 157–162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2010.04.003Google Scholar
Drori, D and Folman, Y 1969 The effect of mating on the longevity of male rats. Experimental Gerontology 4: 263–266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0531-5565(69)90014-XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drori, D and Folman, Y 1976 Environmental effects on longevity in the male rat: exercise, mating, castration, and restricted feeding. Experimental Gerontology 11: 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0531-5565(76)90007-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, IJH 2006 The changing concept of animal sentience. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 100: 11–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.04.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, DL, Leserman, J, Perkins, DO, Stern, RA, Murphy, C, Zheng, B, Gettes, D, Longmate, JA, Silva, SG, van der Horst, CM, Hall, CD, Folds, JD, Golden, RN and Petitto, JM 1997 Severe life stress as a predictor of early disease progression in HIV infection. American Journal of Psychiatry 154: 630–634Google ScholarPubMed
Everson, SA, Kaplan, GA, Goldberg, DE, Salonen, R and Salonen, JT 1997 Hopelessness and 4-year progression of carotid atherosclerosis: the Kuopio ischemic heart disease risk factor study. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 17(8): 1490–1495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.17.8.1490CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, F, Fall, K, Sparén, P, Adami, H, Valdimarsdóttir, H, Lambe, M and Valdimarsdóttir, O 2010 Risk of infection-related cancers after the loss of a child: a follow-up study in Sweden. Cancer Research 71: 116–122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedmann, E, Thomas, S, Liu, F, Morton, P, Chapa, D and Gottlieb, S 2006 Relationship of depression, anxiety, and social isolation to chronic heart failure outpatient mortality. American Heart Journal 152: 940. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2006.05.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gozalo, A and Montoya, E 1991 Mortality causes of the moustached tamarin (Saguinus mystax) in captivity. Journal of Medical Primatology 21: 35–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guba, M, Graeb, C, Jaunch, K and Geissler, E 2004 Pro- and anti-cancer effects of immunosuppressive agents used in organ transplantation. Transplantation 77: 1777–1782. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.TP.0000120181.89206.54CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gust, DA, Gordon, TP, Wilson, ME, Brodie, AR, Ahmed-Ansari, A and McClure, HM 1992 Removal from natal social group to peer housing affects cortisol levels and absolute numbers of T cell subsets in juvenile rhesus monkeys. Brain, Behaviour, and Immunity 6: 189–199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0889-1591(92)90018-JCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasegawa, H and Saiki, I 2002 Psychosocial stress augments tumor development through β-adrenergic activation in mice. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research 93: 729–735. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1349-7006.2002.tb01313.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacob, F, Polzin, DJ, Osborne, CA, Neaton, JD, Kirk, CA, Allen, TA and Swanson, LL 2005 Evaluation of the association between initial proteinuria and morbidity rate or death in dogs with naturally occurring chronic renal failure. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226(3): 393–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.2005.226.393CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, JR and Manuck, SB 1998 Monkeys, aggression, and the pathobiology of atherosclerosis. Aggressive Behavior 24(4): 323–334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI) 1098-2337(1998)24:4<323:: AID-AB7>3.0.CO;2-J3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kawachi, I, Colditz, G, Ascherio, A, Rimm, E, Giovanucci, E, Stampfer, M and Willett, W 1992 Prospective study of phobic anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease in men. Circulation 89(5): 1992–1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.89.5.1992CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiecolt-Glaser, J, Marucha, P, Malarkey, W, Mercado, A and Glaser, R 1995 Slowing of wound healing by psychological stress. The Lancet 346: 1194–1196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)92899-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirk, SJ, Hurson, M, Regan, MC, Holt, DR, Wasserkrug, HL and Barbul, A 1993 Arginine stimulates wound healing and immune function in elderly human beings. Surgery 114: 155–160Google ScholarPubMed
Kubzansky, LD, Davidson, KW, and Rozanski, A 2005 The clinical impact of negative psychological states: expanding the spectrum of risk for coronary artery disease. Psychosomatic Medicine 67: S10–S14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000164012.88829.41CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kyriakis, K and Hadjivassiliou, M 2000 HIV-1 infection-associated risk factors among sexually transmitted disease patients in Athens, Greece: 1990-1996. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 27(5): 259–265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00007435-200005000-00004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leserman, J 2003 HIV disease progression: depression, stress, and possible mechanisms. Biological Psychiatry 54: 295–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00323-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leserman, J 2008 Role of depression, stress, and trauma in HIV disease progression. Psychosomatic Medicine 70(5): 539–545. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181777a5fCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M, Gluck, J, Petitto, J, Hensley, L and Ozer, H 2000 Early social deprivation in nonhuman primates: long-term effects on survival and cell-mediated immunity. Biological Psychiatry 47: 119–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00238-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lillberg, K, Verkasalo, PK, Kaprio, J, Teppo, L, Helenius, H and Koskenvuo, M 2003 Stressful life events and risk of breast cancer in 10,808 women: a cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology 157(5): 415–423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeffler, I, Robinson, J and Cochrane, G 2009 Compromised health and welfare of bears farmed for bile in China. Animal Welfare 18: 225–235Google Scholar
Mace, G and Pelletier, F 2007 Commentary on Ricklefs and Cadena (2007): reproductive investment and lifespan. Ecology Letters 10(10): 872–874. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1461 - 0248.2007.01097.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mar, K 2007 The demography and life history strategies of timber elephants in Myanmar. PhD Thesis, University of London, London, UKGoogle Scholar
Marmot, MG, Rose, G, Shipley, M and Hamilton, PJ 1978 Employment grade and coronary heart disease in British civil servants. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 32: 244–249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.32.4.244CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, G 2010 Species differences in response to captivity: stress, welfare, and the comparative method. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25(12): 713–721. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2010.08.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, G, Clubb, R, Latham, N and Vickery, S 2007 Why and how we should use environmental enrichment to tackle stereotypic behaviour. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102(3-4): 163–188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.041CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, G and Mendl, M 1993 Why is there no simple way of measuring animal welfare? Animal Welfare 2: 301–319Google Scholar
Mason, G and Veasey, J 2010 What do population-level welfare indices suggest about the well-being of zoo elephants? Zoo Biology 29(2): 256–273Google ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B 2005 Stressed or stressed out: What is the difference? Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 30: 315–318Google ScholarPubMed
Miller, RA, Harper, JM, Galecki, A and Burke, DT 2002 Big mice die young: early life body weight predicts longevity in genetically heterogeneous mice. Aging Cell 1: 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1474-9728.2002.00006.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miret, M, Nuevo, R, Morant, C, Sainz-Corton, E, Jimenez-Arrierro, MA, Lopez-Ibor, JJ, Reneses, B, Saiz-Ruiz, J, Baca-Garcia, E and Ayuso-Mateos, JL 2010 Differences between younger and older adults in the structure of suicidal intent and its correlates. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 18(9): 839–847. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181d145b0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moskowitz, JT 2003 Positive affect predicts lower risk of AIDS mortality. Psychosomatic Medicine 65: 620–626. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.PSY.0000073873.74829.23CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Müller, DWH, Gaillard, J, Lackey, LB, Hatt, J and Clauss, M 2009 Comparing life expectancy of three deer species between captive and wild populations. European Journal of Wildlife Research 56: 205–208CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munoz, MJ and Riddle, DL 2003 Positive selection of Caenorhabditis elegans mutants with increased stress resistance and longevity. Genetics 163: 171–180CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, JM, Olivier, DC, Monson, RR, Sobol, AM, Federman, EB and Leighton, AH 1991 Depression and anxiety in relation to social status. Archives of General Psychiatry 48: 223–229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810270035004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naess, H, Lunde, L, Brogger, J and Waje-Andreassen, U 2010 Depression predicts unfavourable functional outcome and higher mortality in stroke patients: the Bergen Stroke Study. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 122(190): 34–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.11 11/j.1600-0404.2010.01373.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Narath, E, Skalicky, M and Viidik, A 2001 Voluntary and forced exercise influence the survival and body composition of aging male rats differently. Experimental Gerontology 36(10): 1699–1711. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0531-5565(01)00145-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neugebauer, V, Li, W, Bird, GC and Han, JS 2004 The amygdale and persistent pain. Neuroscientist 10(3): 221–234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073858403261077CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nobel, J 2010 Do animals commit suicide? A scientific debate. TIME Magazine; March 19, 2010.Google Scholar
Novak, M, Meyer, J, Lutz, C and Tiefenbacher, S 2006 Deprived environments: developmental insights from primatology. In: Mason, G and Rushen, J (eds) Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: Fundamentals and Applications to Welfare, Second Edition pp 153–190. CABI: Wallingford, Oxon, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patronek, G, Waters, D and Glickman, L 1996 Comparative longevity of pet dogs and humans: implications for gerontology research. The Journal of Gerontology 52A(3): B171–B178Google Scholar
Pennix, BWJH, Guralnik, JM and Havlik, RJ 1998 Chronically depressed mood and cancer risk in older persons. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 90(24): 1888–1893. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/90.24.1888CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, KE, Thompson, PD, Caspersen, CJ and Kendrick, JS 1987 Physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart disease. Annual Review of Public Health 8: 235–287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pu.08.050187.001345CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ridgway, SH and McCormick, JG 1971 Anesthesia of the porpoise. In: Soma, LR (ed) Textbook of Veterinary Anesthesia pp 394–403. Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, USAGoogle Scholar
Roberts, M 1989 A survey and analysis of management practices in the North American Red Panda population. In: Glaston, AR (ed) Red Panda Biology pp 129–151. SPB Academic Publishing: The Hague, The NetherlandsGoogle Scholar
Rosengren, A, Hawken, S, Ounpuu, S, Sliwa, K, Zubaid, M, Almahmeed, WA, Blackett, KN, Sitthi-amorn, C, Sato, H and Yusuf, S 2004 Association of psychosocial risk factors with acute myocardial infarction in 11119 cases and 13648 controls from 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. The Lancet 364: 953–962. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17019-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rovner, BW, German, PS, Brant, LJ, Clark, R, Burton, L and Folstein, MF 1991 Depression and mortality. The Journal of the American Medical Association 265: 993–996. http://dx.doi. org/10.1001/jama.1991.03460080063033CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rushen, J 1986 Aversion of sheep to electro-immobilization and physical restraint. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15: 315–324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(86)90124-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, JA 2003 Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review 110: 145–172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saino, N, Ambrosini, R, Martinelli, R and Moller, AP 2002 Mate fidelity, senescence in breeding performance and reproductive trade-offs in the barn swallow. Journal of Animal Ecology 71: 309–319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.2002.00600.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sapolsky, RM, Alberts, SC and Altmann, J 1997 Hypercortisolism associated with social subordinance or social isolation among wild baboons. Archives of General Psychology 54: 1137–1143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830240097014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satin, JR, Linden, W and Phillips, MJ 2009 Depression as a predictor of disease progression and mortality in cancer patients. Cancer 115(22): 5349–5361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.24561CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaefer, C, Coyne, JC and Lazarus, RS 1981 The health-related functions of social support. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 4: 381–486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00846149CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schapiro, SJ, Nehete, PN, Perlman, JE and Sastry, KJ 2000 A comparison of cell-mediated immune responses in rhesus macaques housed singly, in pairs, or in groups. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 68: 67–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(00)00090-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shively, C, Clarkson, T and Kaplan, J 1989 Social deprivation and coronary artery atherosclerosis in female cynomolgus monkeys. Atherosclerosis 77: 69–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-9150(89)90011-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shutt, K, MacLarnon, A, Heistermann, M and Semple, S 2007 Grooming in barbary macaques: better to give that to receive? Biology Letters 3: 231–233.http://dx.doi.org/10.1 098/rsbl.2007.0052CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinha, R, Talih, M, Malison, R, Cooney, N, Anderson, GM and Kreek, MJ 2003 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympatho-adreno-medullary responses to stress-induced and drug cue-induced cocaine craving states. Psychopharmacology 170: 62–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-003-1525-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sirois, BC and Burg, MM 2003 Negative emotion and coronary heart disease. A review. Behaviour Modification 27: 83–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0145445502238695CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sloan, EK, Capitanio, JP, Tarara, RP, Mendoza, SP, Mason, WA and Cole, SW 2007 Social stress enhances sympathetic innervation of primate lymph nodes: mechanisms and implications for viral pathogenesis. Journal of Neuroscience 27(33): 8857–8865. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1247-07.2007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Small, RJ and Demaster, DP 1995 Acclimation to captivity: a quantitative estimate based on survival of bottle-nosed dolphins and California sea lions. Marine Mammal Science 11(4): 510–519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.1995.tb00674.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sood, AK, Hatty, RB, Kamat, AA, Landen, CN, Han, L, Thaker, PM, Li, Y, Gerhenson, DM, Lutgendorf, S and Cole, SW 2006 Stress hormone-mediated invasion of ovarian cancer cells. Clinical Cancer Research 12: 369–375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-05-1698CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spruijt, BM, van den Bos, R and Pijlman, FT 2001 A concept of welfare based on reward evaluating mechanisms in the brain: anticipatory behaviour as an indicator for the state of reward systems. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 72: 145–171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(00)00204-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinmetz, HW, Zingg, R, Ossent, P, Eulenberger, U, Clauss, M and Hatt, JM 2011 Comparison of indoor and captive, free-roaming management in golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) at Zurich zoo. Animal Welfare 20(2): 205–210Google Scholar
Stern, SL, Dhanda, R and Hazuda, HP 2001 Hopelessness predicts mortality in older Mexican and European Americans. Psychosomatic Medicine 63(3): 344–351CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takkouche, B, Regueira, C and Gestal-Otero, J 2001 A cohort study of stress and the common cold. Epidemiology 12: 345–349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001648-200105000-00015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tocidlowski, ME, Cornish, TE, Loomis, MR and Stoskopf, MK 1997 Mortality in captive wild-caught horned puffin chicks (Fratercula corniculata). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 28: 298–306Google ScholarPubMed
Tsigos, C and Chrousos, GP 2002 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neuroendocrine factors and stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 53(4): 865–871. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00429-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uno, H, Tarara, R, Else, J, Suleman, M and Sapolsky, R 1989 Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged and fatal stress in primates. The Journal of Neuroscience 9: 1705–1711CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verona, E and Javdani, S 2011 Dimensions of adolescent psychopathology and relationships to suicide risk indicators. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 40(8): 958–971. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9630-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vigliola, L and Meekan, MG 2002 Size at hatching and planktonic growth determine post-settlement survivorship of coral reef fish. Oecologia 131: 89–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-001-0866-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Holst, D 1972 Renal failure as the cause of death in Tupaia belangeri exposed to persistent social stress. Journal of Comparative Physiology A78: 236–273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00697657CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Holst, D, Hutzelmeyer, H, Kaetzke, P, Khaschei, M and Shonheiter, R 1999 Social rank, stress, fitness, and life expectancy in wild rabbits. Naturwissenschaften 86: 388–393CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waples, K and Gales, N 2002 Evaluating and minimising social stress in the care of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus). Zoo Biology 21: 5–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.10004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, A, Adams, MJ and King, JE 2011 Happy orang-utans live longer lives. Biology Letters 7(6): 872–874. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0543CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wickrama, K, Lorenz, F, Conger, R and Elder, G 1997 Marital quality and physical illness: a latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family 59: 143–155. http://dx.doi.org/10. 2307/353668CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, R, Bienias, J, Mendes de Leon, C, Evans, D and Bennett, D 2003 Negative affect and mortality in older persons. American Journal of Epidemiology 158: 827. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg224CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, EV, Kim, S, Donovan, EL, Chen, M, Gross, AC, Marketon, JIW, Barsky, SH and Glaser, R 2009 Norepinephrine upregulates VEGF, IL-8, and IL-6 expression in human melanoma tumor cell lines: implications for stress-related enhancement of tumor progression. Brain, Behaviour, and Immunity 23(2): 267–275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2008.10.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yun, AJ, Lee, PY and Bazar, KA 2004 Temporal variation of autonomic balance and diseases during circadian, seasonal, reproductive, and lifespan cycles. Medical Hypotheses 63: 155–162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2004.02.030Google ScholarPubMed