Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T04:31:59.211Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mammal trapping: a review of animal welfare standards of killing and restraining traps

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

G Iossa ,
CD Soulsbury  and
S Harris
G Iossa*
Affiliation:
School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UK
CD Soulsbury
Affiliation:
School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UK
S Harris
Affiliation:
School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UK
*
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Millions of wild mammals are trapped annually for fur, pest control and wildlife management. Ensuring the welfare of trapped individuals can only be achieved by trapping methods that meet accepted standards of animal welfare. At the international level, the assessment of mechanical properties of killing and restraining traps is set out in two documents published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Few traps currently in use have been tested according to the ISO standards and, in addition, new traps have been designed and old traps modified since the publication of the standards. In this paper we review trapping methods used in Europe and North America to see whether they meet the ISO standards and examine ways to improve the welfare performance of traps. In addition, international legislation is assessed to determine whether this ensures a sufficient level of welfare for trapped animals. Finally, trapping practices used in academic research are reviewed. We conclude that many of the practices commonly used to trap mammals cannot be considered humane. Current legislation fails to ensure an acceptable level of welfare for a large number of captured animals. New welfare standards for trapping wild mammals need to be established so that in future a minimum level of welfare is guaranteed for all trapped individuals.

Keywords

animal welfareInternational legislationISO standardsmammalstrapping standardstrap types
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 16 , Issue 3 , August 2007 , pp. 335 - 352
Copyright
© 2007 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

American Society of Mammalogists Animal Care and Use Committee 1998 Guidelines for the capture, handling, and care of mammals as approved by the American Society of Mammalogists. Journal of Mammalogy 79: 1416–1431CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anonymous 1998a Agreement on international humane trapping standards between the European Community, Canada and the Russian Federation. Official Journal of the European Communities L42: 43–57Google Scholar
Anonymous 1998b International Agreement in the form of an Agreed Minute between the European Community and the United States of America on humane trapping standards. Official Journal of the European Communities L219: 26–37Google Scholar
Anonymous 2003 Guidelines for the treatment of animals in behavioural research and teaching. Animal Behaviour 65: 249–255CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arthur, SM 1988 An evaluation of techniques for capturing and radiocollaring fishers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 16: 417–421Google Scholar
Barrett, MW, Proulx, G, Hobson, D, Nelson, D and Nolan, JW 1989 Field evaluation of the C120 magnum trap for martens. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17: 299–306Google Scholar
Beaver, BV, Reed, W, Leary, S, McKiernan, B, Bain, F, Schultz, R, Bennett, BT, Pascoe, P, Shull, E, Cork, LC, Francis-Floyd, R, Amass, KD, Johnson, R, Schmidt, RH, Underwood, W, Thornton, GW and Kohn, B 2001 2000 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218: 669–696Google Scholar
Berchielli, LT and Tullar, BF 1980 Comparison of a leg snare with a standard leg-gripping trap. New York Fish and Game Journal 27: 63–71Google Scholar
Birks, JDS and Kitchener, AC 1999 The Distribution and Status of the Polecat Mustela putorius in Britain in the 1990s. The Vincent Wildlife Trust: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Bluett, RD 2001 Drowning is not euthanasia: springboard or siren's song? Wildlife Society Bulletin 29: 744–750Google Scholar
Bortolotti, GR 1984 Trap and poison mortality of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos and bald eagles Haliaeetus leucocephalus. Journal of Wildlife Management 48: 1173–1179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
British Association for Shooting & Conservation 2002 Codes of practice. BASC: http://www.basc.org.uk/content/codes of practice (accessed 24 February 2006)Google Scholar
British Association for Shooting & Conservation 2006 Deer stalking a code of practice. BASC: http://www.basc.org.uk/content/stalkingpractice (accessed 10 May 2006)Google Scholar
Broom, DM 1988 The scientific assessment of animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 20: 5–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broom, DM 1999 The welfare of vertebrate pests in relation to their management. In: Cowan, PD and Feare, CJ (eds) Advances in Vertebrate Pest Management pp 309–329. Filander: Fürth, GermanyGoogle Scholar
Canadian Council on Animal Care 1993 Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, 2nd Edition. Canadian Council on Animal Care: Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Cattet, MRL, Christison, K, Caulkett, N A and Stenhouse, GB 2003 Physiologic responses of grizzly bears to different methods of capture. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39: 649–654CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chadwick AH, Hodge SJ, Ratcliffe PR and Great Britain Forestry Commission 1997 Foxes and forestry. Forestry Commission: Edinburgh, UKGoogle Scholar
Close, B, Banister, K, Baumans, V, Bernoth, E-M, Bromage, N, Bunyan, J, Erhardt, W, Flecknell, P, Gregory, N, Hackbarth, NGH, Morton, D and Warwick, C 1996 Recommendations for euthanasia of experimental animals: Part 1. Laboratory Animals (London) 30: 293–316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, J 2003 Risk assessment for animals: should the routine assessment of negative effects of intervention in wild animals be built into research projects? Journal of Zoology 260: 117–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conroy, JWH and Jenkins, D 1986 Ecology of otters in northern Scotland UK. IV. Diving times and hunting success of otters (Lutra lutra) at Dinnet Lochs, Aberdeenshire and in Yell Sound, Shetland. Journal of Zoology 209A: 341–346CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copeland, JP, Cesar, E, Peek, JM, Harris, CE, Long, CD and Hunter, DL 1995 A live trap for wolverine and other forest carnivores. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23: 535–538Google Scholar
Crasson, D 1996 Study into trapping in five European Union countries. Unpublished Licenciée en Biologie Université de Louvain-laNeuve, BelgiumGoogle Scholar
Cross, ML, Swale, E, Young, G and Mackintosh, C 1999 Effect of field capture on the measurement of cellular immune responses in wild ferrets (Mustela furo), vectors of bovine tuberculosis in New Zealand. Veterinary Research 30: 401–410Google ScholarPubMed
Dawkins, MS 1998 Evolution and animal welfare. Quarterly Review of Biology 73: 305–328Google ScholarPubMed
de Vos, A and Gunther, SE 1952 Preliminary live-trapping studies of marten. Journal of Wildlife Management 16: 207–214Google Scholar
Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs 2005 Defra code of practice on the use of snares in fox and rabbit control. DEFRA: http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-country-side/vertebrates/snares/pdf/snares-cop.pdf (accessed 4 May 2006)Google Scholar
Dronova, N and Shestakov, A 2005 Trapping a living: conservation and socio-economic aspects of the fur trade in the Russian Far East. TRAFFIC Europe-Russia: Moscow, Russian FederationGoogle Scholar
Duncan, JR, Prasse, KW and Mahaffey, EA 1994 Veterinary Laboratory Medicine: Clinical Pathology, 3rd Edition. Iowa State University Press: Ames, Iowa, USAGoogle Scholar
Engeman, RM, Krupa, HW and Kern, J 1997 On the use of injury scores for judging the acceptability of restraining traps. Journal of Wildlife Research 2: 124–127Google Scholar
Englund, J 1982 A comparison of injuries to leg-hold trapped and foot-snared red foxes. Journal of Wildlife Management 46: 1113–1117CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federation of Field Sports Associations of the European Union 1998 Technical support for the preparation of the implementation of the Agreement on international humane trapping standards between the European Community, Canada, and the Russian Federation - Evaluation of the situation in the Member States. Final report B7 - 8110/98/000576/MAR/D2. FACE: Brussels, BelgiumGoogle Scholar
Fernández-Morán, J, Saavedra, D and Manteca-Vilanova, X 2002 Reintroduction of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) in northeastern Spain: trapping, handling, and medical management. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 33: 222–227Google ScholarPubMed
Fisher, JT and Twitchell, C 2003 Quantifying the differences in tension and torque between snared American marten (Martes americana) and snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus). Final report. Alberta Research Council Inc: Vegreville, Alberta, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Fleming, PJS, Allen, LR, Berghout, MJ, Meek, PD, Pavlov, PM, Stevens, P, Strong, K, Thompson, JA and Thomson, PC 1998 The performance of wild-canid traps in Australia: efficiency, selectivity and trap-related injuries. Wildlife Research 25: 327–338CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, CH 2004a Trapping in North America: a historical overview. In: Fox CH and Papouchis CM (eds) Cull of the Wild. A Contemporary Analysis of Wildlife Trapping in the United States. pp 1–22. Bang Publishing: Brainerd, Minnesota, USAGoogle Scholar
Fox, CH 2004b State trapping regulations. In: Fox CH and Papouchis CM (eds) Cull of the Wild. A Contemporary Analysis of Wildlife Trapping in the United States. pp 71–111. Bang Publishing: Brainerd, Minnesota, USAGoogle Scholar
Fox, CH and Papouchis, CM 2004a Cull of the wild. A contemporary analysis of wildlife trapping in the United States. Bang Publishing: Brainerd, Minnesota, USAGoogle Scholar
Fox, CH and Papouchis, CM 2004b Trapping devices, methods, and research. In: Fox CH and Papouchis CM (eds) Cull of the Wild. A Contemporary Analysis of Wildlife Trapping in the United States., pp 31–41. Bang Publishing: Brainerd, Minnesota, USAGoogle Scholar
Fox, CH and Papouchis, CM 2004c Refuting the myths. In: Fox CH and Papouchis CM (eds) Cull of the Wild. A Contemporary Analysis of Wildlife Trapping in the United States. pp 23–30. Bang Publishing: Brainerd, Minnesota, USAGoogle Scholar
Frank, L, Simpson, D and Woodroffe, R 2003 Foot snares: an effective method for capturing African lions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 309–314Google Scholar
García-Perea, R 2000 Survival of injured Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and non-natural mortality in central-southern Spain. Biological Conservation 93: 265–269CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrett, T 1999 Alternative Traps. Animal Welfare Institute: Washington, DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, FF and Gofton, N 1982 Terminal dives in mink, muskrat and beaver. Physiology and Behavior 28: 835–840CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodrich, JM, Kerley, LL, Schleyer, BO, Miquelle, DG, Quigley, KS, Smirnov, YN, Nikolaev, IG, Quigley, HB and Hornocker, MG 2001 Capture and chemical anesthesia of Amur (Siberian) tigers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29: 533–542Google Scholar
Greenspan, L, McLellan, BA and Greig, H 1985 Abbreviated injury scale and injury severity score: a scoring chart. Journal of Trauma 25: 60–64CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, NG 1989/90 Slaughtering methods and equipment. Veterinary History 6: 73–84Google Scholar
Gregory, NG 2005 Bowhunting deer. Animal Welfare 14: 111–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, GD and Weeks, HP 1985 Cortisol and aldosterone comparisons of cottontail rabbits collected by shooting, trapping, and falconry. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 21: 40–42Google ScholarPubMed
Harrop, SR 1998 The Agreement on international humane trapping standards - Background, critique and the texts. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1: 387–394CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrop, SR 2000 The international regulation of animal welfare and conservation issues through standards dealing with the trapping of wild mammals. Journal of Environmental Law 12: 333–360CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hiltz, M and Roy, LD 2001 Use of anaesthetized animals to test humaneness of killing traps. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29: 606–611Google Scholar
Huber, D, Kusak, J, Žvorc, Z and Rafaj, RB 1997 Effects of sex, age, capturing method, and season on serum chemistry values of brown bears in Croatia. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33: 790–794CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubert, GF Jr, Hungerford, LL, Proulx, G, Bluett, RD and Bowman, L 1996 Evaluation of two restraining traps to capture raccoons. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24: 699–708Google Scholar
International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 1997 Improving Animal Welfare in U.S. Trapping Programs: Process Recommendations and Summaries of Existing Data. IAFWA, Fur Resources Technical Subcommittee, Trapping Work Group: Washington DC, USAGoogle Scholar
International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 2000 Summary of Progress. Testing Restraining Traps for the Development of Best Management practices for Trapping in the United States. IAFWA, Furbearer Resources Technical Work Group: Washington DC, USAGoogle Scholar
International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 2003 Summary of Progress 1999-2000 Field Season. Testing Restraining and Body-Gripping Traps for Development of Best Management Practices for Trapping in the United States. IAFWA, Furbearer Resources Technical Work Group: Washington, DC, USAGoogle Scholar
International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 2006 Best Management Practices for Trapping in the United States. IAFWA, Furbearer Resources Technical Work Group: Washington, DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Inglis, IR, Pelz, H-J, Solmsdorff, K and Talling, JC 2001 Final Report for: Study contract (Ref: B7-8500/2001/330989/Mar/E3) for the exploration of physiological and behavioural criteria for muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus). UnpublishedGoogle Scholar
Institute for Laboratory Animal Research 1996 Guide to the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. ILAR, National Academy Press: Washington DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Irving, L and Orr, MD 1935 The diving habits of the beaver. Science 82: 569CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ISO 10990-4 1999 Animal (mammal) traps: Part 4: Methods for testing killing trap systems used on land or underwater. International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, SwitzerlandGoogle Scholar
ISO 10990-5 1999 Animal (mammal) traps: Part 5: Methods for testing restraining traps. International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, SwitzerlandGoogle Scholar
Kaczensky, P, Knauer, F, Jonozovic, M, Walzer, C and Huber, T 2002 Experiences with trapping, chemical immobilization, and radiotagging of brown bears in Slovenia. Ursus 13: 347–356Google Scholar
Kirkwood, JK, Sainsbury, AW and Bennett, PM 1994 The welfare of free-living wild animals: methods of assessment. Animal Welfare 3: 257–273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kolbe, JA, Squires, JR and Parker, TW 2003 An effective box trap for capturing lynx. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 980–985Google Scholar
Kreeger, TJ, White, PJ, Seal, US and Tester, JR 1990 Pathological responses of red foxes to foot hold traps. Journal of Wildlife Management 54: 147–160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuehn, DW, Fuller, TK, Mech, LD, Paul, WJ, Fritts, SH and Berg, WE 1986 Trap-related injuries to gray wolves in Minnesota. Journal of Wildlife Management 50: 90–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larkin, RP, Van Deelen, TR, Sabick, RM, Gosselink, TE and Warner, RE 2003 Electronic signaling for prompt removal of an animal from a trap. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 392–398Google Scholar
League Against Cruel Sports 2005 The killing game: out of control predator control http://www.league.uk.com/killing_game/report1.pdf (accessed 9 May 2006)Google Scholar
Littin, KE, Mellor, DJ, Warburton, B and Eason, CT 2004 Animal welfare and ethical issues relevant to the humane control of vertebrate pests. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 52: 1–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logan, KA, Sweanor, LL, Smith, JF and Hornocker, MG 1999 Capturing pumas with foot-hold snares. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27: 201–208Google Scholar
Lovari, S, Valier, P and Lucchi, MR 1994 Ranging behaviour and activity of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes, Mammalia) in relation to environmental variables, in a Mediterranean mixed pinewood. Journal of Zoology 232: 323–339CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucherini, M and Lovari, S 1996 Habitat richness affects home range size in the red fox Vulpes vulpes. Behavioural Processes 36: 103CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludders, JW, Schmidt, RH, Dein, FJ and Klein, PN 1999 Drowning is not euthanasia. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27: 666–670Google Scholar
Luengos Vidal, M, Lucherini, M and Casanave, E 2003 An evaluation of three restraining devices for capturing pampas foxes. Canid News 6: 1–9. http://www.canids.org/canidnews/6/Devices for capturing pampas foxes.pdf (accessed 4 May 2006)Google Scholar
MacNally, L 1992 Deer management at Abernethy an RSPB reserve. Deer 8: 587–590Google Scholar
Marks, CA, Allen, L, Gigliotti, F, Busana, F, Gonzalez, T, Lindeman, M and Fisher, PM 2004 Evaluation of the tranquilliser trap device (TTD) for improving the humaneness of dingo trapping. Animal Welfare 13: 393–399CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, G and Littin, KE 2003 The humaneness of rodent pest control. Animal Welfare 12: 1–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinstry, MC and Anderson, SH 1998 Using snares to live-capture beaver, Castor canadensis. Canadian Field-Naturalist 112: 469–473Google Scholar
McLaren, GW, Thornton, PD, Newman, C, Buesching, CD, Baker, SE, Mathews, F and Macdonald, DW 2005 High rectal temperature indicates an increased risk of unexpected recovery in anaesthetized badgers. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32: 48–52CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meek, PD, Jenkins, DJ, Morris, B, Ardler, AJ and Hawksby, RJ 1995 Use of two humane leg-hold traps for catching pest species. Wildlife Research 22: 733–739CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellor, DJ and Littin, KE 2004 Using science to support ethical decisions promoting humane livestock slaughter and vertebrate pest control. Animal Welfare 13: 5127–5132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, S 1991 Being kind to animal pests. Meyer: Garrison, Iowa, USAGoogle Scholar
Miller, CJ 1993 An evaluation of two possum trpa types for catch-efficiency and humaneness. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 23: 5–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minnesota Trapper Association 2000 Trap checking. MNTA: http://www.mntrappers.com/trapchecking.html (accessed 24 February 2006)Google Scholar
Moberg, GP 1999 When does stress become distress? Laboratory Animals (London) 28: 22–26Google Scholar
Moehrenschlager, A, Macdonald, DW and Moehrenschlager, C 2003 Reducing capture-related injuries and radio collaring effects on swift fox. In: Sovada, MA and Carbyn, L (eds) The swift fox: ecology and conservation of swift foxes in a changing world pp 107–113. Canadian Plains Research Center: Regina, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Mowat, G, Slough, BG and Rivard, R 1994 A comparison of three live capturing devices for lynx: capture efficiency and injuries. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22: 644–650Google Scholar
National Federation of Badger Groups 2002 The case for a ban on snares. NFBG: http://www.badger.org.uk/action/The-case-for-a-ban-on-snares.pdf (accessed 24 February 2006)Google Scholar
Naylor, BJ and Novak, M 1994 Catch efficiency and selectivity of various traps and sets used for capturing American martens. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22: 489–496Google Scholar
Nellis, CH 1968 Some methods for capturing coyotes alive. Journal of Wildlife Management 32: 402–405CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North Dakota Bowhunters Association 2006 North Dakota Bowhunters Code of Ethics. NDBA: http://www.ndbowhunters.org/code.htm (accessed 10 May 2006)Google Scholar
Novak, M 1981a Capture tests with underwater snares, leg-hold, Conibear, and Mohawk traps. Canadian Trapper, April: 18-23Google Scholar
Novak, M 1981b The foot-snare and the leg-hold traps: a comparison. In: Chapman, JA and Pursley, D (eds) Worldwide furbearer conference proceedings pp 1671–1685. Frostburg: Maryland, USAGoogle Scholar
Novak, M 1987 Traps and trap research. In: Novak M, Baker JA, Obbard ME, Malloch B, Ontario, Ministry of Natural Resources and Ontario Trappers Association (eds) Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America pp 941–970. Ontario Trappers Association: Toronto, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Nutman, AW, Gregory, NG and Warburton, B 1998 A comparison of the effectiveness of three neck-hold killing traps in occluding carotid arteries in the neck of the brushtail possum. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 46: 177–181Google ScholarPubMed
Olsen, GH, Linscombe, RG, Wright, VL and Holmes, RA 1988 Reducing injuries to terrestrial furbearers by using padded foot hold traps. Wildlife Society Bulletin 16: 303–307Google Scholar
Onderka, DK, Skinner, DL and Todd, AW 1990 Injuries to coyotes and other species caused by four models of footholding devices. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18: 175–182Google Scholar
Orr, MD 2005 Pest animal control - humane options. Lifestyle block. http://www.lifestyleblock.co.nz/articles/weeds/18_Pest_control.htm (accessed 24 February 2006)Google Scholar
Patterson, BD, Neiburger, EJ and Kasiki, SM 2003 Tooth breakage and dental disease as causes of carnivore-human conflicts. Journal of Mammalogy 84: 190–1962.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawlina, IM and Proulx, G 1999 Factors affecting trap efficiency: a review. In: Proulx, G (ed) Mammal trapping pp 95–115. Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd: Alberta, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Phillips, RL 1996 Evaluation of 3 types of snares for capturing coyotes. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24: 107–110Google Scholar
Pohlmeyer, K, Drommer, W, Kaup, FJ, Fehlberg, I and Ott, N 1995 Efficiency of instant killing traps used in hunting martens and foxes under huntsman-like conditions. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 102: 133–137Google Scholar
Potočnik, H, Kljun, F, Račnik, J, Skrbinšek, T, Adamič, M and Kos, I 2002 Experience obtained from box trapping and handling wildcats in Slovenia. Acta Theriologica 47: 211–219CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poutu, N and Warburton, B 2003 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the Waddington backcracker trap for killing stoats. Rep No DOC Science Internal Series 132. New Zealand Department of Conservation: Wellington, New ZealandGoogle Scholar
Powell, RA 2005 Evaluating welfare of American black bears (Ursus americanus) captured in foot snares and in winter dens. Journal of Mammalogy 86: 1171–1177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, RA and Proulx, G 2003 Trapping and marking terrestrial mammals for research: integrating ethics, performance criteria, techniques, and common sense. ILAR Journal 44: 259–276CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Princen, S 2004 EC compliance with WTO law: the interplay of law and politics. European Journal of International Law 15: 555–574CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proulx, G 1999a Review of current mammal trap technology in North America. In: Proulx G (ed) Mammal Trapping pp I -46. Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd: Alberta, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Proulx, G 1999b The Bionic®: an effective marten trap. In: Proulx, G (ed) Mammal Trapping pp 79–87. Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd: Alberta, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Proulx, G and Barrett, MW 1990 Assessment of power snares to effectively kill red fox. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18: 27–30Google Scholar
Proulx, G and Barrett, MW 1991 Evaluation of the Bionic® trap to quickly kill mink (Mustela vison) in simulated natural environments. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 27: 276–280CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proulx, G and Barrett, MW 1993a Evaluation of mechanically improved Conibear-220™ traps to quickly kill fisher (Martes pennanti) in simulated natural environments. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 29: 317–323CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proulx, G and Barrett, MW 1993b Evaluation of the Bionic® trap to quickly kill fisher (Martes pennanti) in simulated natural environments. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 29: 310–316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proulx, G, Barrett, MW and Cook, SR 1989a The C120 Magnum: an effective quick-kill trap for marten. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17: 294–298Google Scholar
Proulx, G, Cook, SR and Barrett, MW 1989b Assessment and preliminary development of the rotating-jaw Conibear 120 trap to effectively kill marten (Martes americana). Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 1074–1079CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proulx, G and Drescher, RK 1994 Assessment of rotating-jaw traps to humanely kill raccoons (Procyon lotor). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 30: 335–339CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proulx, G, Kolenosky, AJ, Badry, MJ, Cole, PJ and Drescher, RK 1993 Assessment of the Sauvageau 2001-8 trap to effectively kill Arctic fox. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21: 132–135Google Scholar
Proulx, G, Kolenosky, AJ, Badry, MJ, Cole, PJ and Drescher, RK 1994a A snowshoe hare snare system to minimize capture of marten. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22: 639–643Google Scholar
Proulx, G, Pawlina, IM, Onderka, DK, Badry, MJ and Seidel, K 1994b Field evaluation of the number I I/2 steel-jawed leg-hold and the Sauvageau 2001-8 traps to humanely capture Arctic fox. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22: 179–183Google Scholar
Proulx, G, Kolenosky, AJ, Cole, PJ and Drescher, RK 1995 A humane killing trap for lynx (Felis lynx): the Conibear 330™ with clamping bars. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31: 57–61CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruss, SD, Cool, NL, Hudson, RJ and Gaboury, AR 2002 Evaluation of a modified neck snare to live-capture coyotes. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30: 508–516Google Scholar
Putman, RJ 1995 Ethical considerations and animal welfare in ecological field studies. Biodiversity and Conservation 4: 903–915CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reagan, SR, Ertel, JM, Stinson, P, Yakupzack, P and Anderson, D 2002 A passively triggered foot snare design for American black bears to reduce disturbance by non-target animals. Ursus 13: 317–320Google Scholar
Reynolds, JC, Short, MJ and Leigh, RJ 2004 Development of population control strategies for mink Mustela vison, using floating rafts as monitors and trap sites. Biological Conservation 120: 533–543CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryser, A, Scholl, M, Zwahlen, M, Oetliker, M, Ryser-Degiorgis, MP and Breitenmoser, U 2005 A remote-controlled teleinjection system for the low-stress capture of large mammals. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 721–730Google Scholar
Sabean, B and Mills, J 1994 Raccoon - 6” x 6” body gripping study. Nova Scotia Department Natural Resources Publications, unpublishedGoogle Scholar
Sala, L, Sola, C, Spampanato, A, Tongiorgi, P and Magnanini, M 1993 Capture and identification techniques of marmot on Mount Cimone (Northen Appenines). IBEX Journal of Mountain Ecology 1: 14–16Google Scholar
Schmidt, RH and Bruner, JG 1981 A professional attitude toward humaneness. Wildlife Society Bulletin 9: 289–291Google Scholar
Seddon, PJ, Van Heezik, Y and Maloney, RM 1999 Short- and medium-term evaluation of foot-hold trap injuries in two species of fox in Saudi Arabia. In: Proulx, G (ed) Mammal Trapping pp 67–78. Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd: Alberta, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Serfass, TL, Brooks, RP, Swimley, TJ, Rymon, LM and Hayden, AH 1996 Considerations for capturing, handling, and translocating river otters. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24: 25–31Google Scholar
Sharp, I and Saunders, G 2005 Humane pest animal control - codes of practice and standard operating procedures. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries: Orange, New South Wales, AustraliaGoogle Scholar
Shivik, JA, Gruver, KS and DeLiberto, TJ 2000 Preliminary evaluation of new cable restraints to capture coyotes. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28: 606–613Google Scholar
Short, J, Turner, B and Risbey, D 2002 Control of feral cats for nature conservation. III. Trapping. Wildlife Research 29: 475–487CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Short, MJ and Reynolds, JC 2001 Physical exclusion of non-target species in tunnel-trapping of mammalian pests. Biological Conservation 98: 139–147CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Statistics Canada 2004 Fur statistics. Rep No 23-013-XIE. Statistics Canada: Ottawa, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Stocker, L 2005 Practical wildlife care, 2nd Edition. Blackwell: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tandon, OP, Malhotra, V, Tandon, S and D'Silva, I 2003 Neurophysiology of pain: insight to orofacial pain. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 47: 247–269Google ScholarPubMed
The Council of European Communities 1991 Council Regulation (EEC) No 3254/91 of 4 November 1991 prohibiting the use of leg-hold traps in the Community and the introduction into the Community of pelts and manufactured goods of certain wild animal species originating in countries which catch them by means of leg-hold traps or trapping methods which do not meet international humane trapping standards. Official Journal of the European Communities L308: 1–4Google Scholar
The Fund for Animals 2001 Suggested guidelines for working with a nuisance wildlife control operator. The Fund for Animals: http://www.fundforanimals.org/library/documentViewer.asp?ID=467&table=documentsref (accessed 24 February 2006)Google Scholar
Tocidlowski, ME, Spelman, LH, Sumner, PW and Stoskopf, MK 2000 Hematology and serum biochemnistry paramenters of North American river otters (Lontra canadensis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 31: 484–490Google Scholar
Travaini, A, Laffitte, R and Delibes, M 1996 Leg-hold trapping red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Doñana national park: efficiency, selectivity, and injuries. Journal of Wildlife Research 1: 52–56Google Scholar
Tullar, BF Jr 1984 Evaluation of a padded foot-hold trap for capturing foxes and raccoons. New York Fish and Game Journal 31: 97–103Google Scholar
Turk, DC and Melzack, R 1992 Handbook of Pain Assessment. Guilford Press: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
van Ballenberghe, V 1984 Injuries to wolves sustained during live-capture. Journal of Wildlife Management 48: 1425–1429CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warburton, B, Gregory, NG and Bunce, M 1999 Stress response of Australian brushtail possums captured in foot-hold and cage traps. In: Proulx, G (ed) Mammal Trapping pp 53–66. Alpha Wildlife Research & Management Ltd: Alberta, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Warburton, B, Gregory, NG and Morriss, G 2000 Effect of jaw shape in kill-traps on time to loss of palpebral reflexes in brushtail possums. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 36: 92–96CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warburton, B and Hall, JV 1995 Impact momentum and clamping force thresholds for developing standards for possum kill traps. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 22: 39–44Google Scholar
Warburton, B and O'Connor, C 2004 Research on vertebrate pesticides and traps: do wild animals benefit? Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 32: 229–234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warburton, B and Orchard, I 1996 Evaluation of five kill traps for effective capture and killing of Australian brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). New Zealand Journal of Zoology 23: 307–314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warburton, B, Poutu, N and Domigan, I 2002 Effectiveness of the Victor snapback trap for killing stoats. DOC Science Internal Series 83. New Zealand Department of Conservation: Wellington, New ZealandGoogle Scholar
Way, JG, Ortega, IM, Auger, PJ and Strauss, EG 2002 Box-trapping eastern coyotes in southeastern Massachusetts. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30: 695–702Google Scholar
Weir, RD 1997 Inventory of fishers in the sub-boreal forests of North-Central British Columbia Phase 1: capture and marking. Rep No 130. Peace/Williston Fish and Wildlife Compensation Program: Westwold, British Columbia, CanadaGoogle Scholar
White, PJ, Kreeger, TJ, Seal, US and Tester, JR 1991 Pathological responses of red foxes to capture in box traps. Journal of Wildlife Management 55: 75–80Google Scholar
Woodroffe, R, Bourne, FJ, Cox, DR, Donnelly, CA, Gettinby, G, McInerney, JP and Morrison, WI 2005 Welfare of badgers (Meles meles) subjected to culling: patterns of trap-related injury. Animal Welfare 14: 11–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zelin, S, Jofriet, JC, Percival, K and Abdinoor, DJ 1983 Evaluation of humane traps: momentum thresholds for four furbearers. Journal of Wildlife Management 47: 863–868CrossRefGoogle Scholar