Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T06:25:17.517Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Aquaculture and restocking: implications for conservation and welfare

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2023

VA Braithwaite  and
AGV Salvanes
VA Braithwaite*
Affiliation:
School of Forest Resources & Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA Department of Biology, University of Bergen, PO Box 7800, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
AGV Salvanes
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, University of Bergen, PO Box 7800, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
*
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

As the harvesting of fish through commercial fisheries becomes both harder and less economically viable, the world is becoming increasingly dependent on aquaculture to provide fish for human consumption. The closely related activity of stock enhancement, whereby large numbers of fish are reared and then released, is a common practice aimed at increasing the numbers of fish in rivers and along coasts. Aquaculture and stock enhancement practices raise a number of welfare and conservation issues both for fish that are reared within captivity, and for the local populations and habitats that are influenced by fish-rearing activities. In this review, we illustrate how fish farms and hatcheries have directly affected fish welfare. Examples cover on-farm fish husbandry and healthcare, the interactions between farmed and wild fish, and survival of fish released for stock enhancement. These aspects are often intertwined with important conservation issues. Thus, we also review direct effects that aquaculture-generated pollution can have on local habitats, issues associated with feeding reared fish, and problems created by alien fish (either escapees or intentionally released fish). While awareness of fish welfare is certainly growing, so is the rate at which fish are reared. There is, therefore, a pressing need to understand the welfare and conservation issues that are affected by aquaculture and stock enhancement.

Keywords

animal welfareaquacultureconservationfish farmingrestockingstock enhancement
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , May 2010 , pp. 139 - 149
Copyright
© 2010 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Adams, C, Huntingford, FA, Turnbull, JF, Arnott, S and Bell, A 2000 Size heterogeneity can reduce aggression and promote growth in Atlantic salmon parr. Aquaculture International 8: 543–549CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alänära, A 1996 The use of self-feeders in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) production. Aquaculture 145: 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrew, JE, Noble, C, Kadri, S, Jewell, H and Huntingford, FA 2002 The effect of demand feeding on swimming speed and feeding responses in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, gilthead sea bream, Sparus aurata L and European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax L in sea cages. Aquaculture Research 33: 501–507CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angulo, FJ, Nargund, VN and Chiller, TC 2004 Evidence of an association between use of anti-microbial agents in food animals and anti-microbial resistance among bacteria isolated from humans and the human health consequences of such resistance. Journal of Veterinary Medicine 51: 374–379CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Araki, H, Cooper, B and Blouin, MS 2007 Genetic effects of captive breeding cause a rapid, cumulative fitness decline in the wild. Science 318: 100–103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arendt, JD 1997 Adaptive intrinsic growth rates: an integration across taxa. Quarterly Reviews in Biology 72: 149–177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashley, PJ 2007 Fish welfare: Current issues in aquaculture. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 104: 199–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baras, E and Jobling, M 2002 Dynamics of intra-cohort cannibalism in cultured fish. Aquaculture Research 33: 461–479CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barton, BA and Iwama, GK 1991 Physiological changes in fish from stress in aquaculture with emphasis on the response and effects of corticosteroids. Annual Review of Fish Diseases 1: 3–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berejikian, BA, Tezak, EP, Flagg, TA, LaRae, AL, Kummerow, E and Mahnkenm, CVW 2000 Social dominance, growth, and habitat use of age-0 steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) grown in enriched and conventional hatchery rearing environments. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 628–636CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berejikian, BA, Tezak, EP, Riley, SC and LaRae, AL 2001 Competitive ability and social behaviour of juvenile steelhead reared in enriched and conventional hatchery tanks and a stream environment. Journal of Fish Biology 59: 1600–1613CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berejikian, B, van Doornik, D, LaRae, A, Tezak, S and Lee, J 2005 The effects of exercise in behaviour and reproductive success of captively reared steelhead. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 134: 1236–1252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braithwaite, VA and Salvanes, AGV 2005 Environmental variability in the early rearing environment generates behaviourally flexible cod: implications for rehabilitating wild populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London Series B272:1107-1113CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braithwaite, VA and Boulcott, P 2007 Pain perception and fear in fish. Diseases in Aquatic Organisms 75: 131–138CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Branson, EJ 2008 Fish Welfare. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branson, EJ and Turnbull, T 2008 Welfare and deformities in fish. In: Branson, EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 202–216. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, JRA 2002 Wild salmonids and sea louse infestations on the west coast of Scotland: sources of infection and implications for the management of marine salmon farms. Pest Management Science 58: 595–608CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabello, FC 2004 Antibiotics and aquaculture in Chile: implications for human and animal health. Revista Medica de Chile 132: 1001–1006Google ScholarPubMed
Cabello, FC 2006 Heavy use of prophylactic antibiotics in aquaculture: a growing problem for human and animal health and for the environment. Environmental Microbiology 8: 1137–1144CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calow, P 1982 Homeostasis and fitness. American Naturalist 120: 416–419CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, SP and Corneli, PS 1999 The evolution of behavioural norms of reaction as a problem in ecological genetics: theory, methods and data. In: Foster, S and Endler, JA (eds) Geographic Variation in Behaviour. Perspectives on Evolutionary Mechanisms pp 52–61. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Chandroo, KP, Duncan, IJH and Moccia, RD 2004 Can fish suffer?: perspectives on sentience, pain, fear and stress. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 86: 225–250CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chelossi, E, Vezzulli, L, Milano, A, Branzoni, M, Fabiano, M and Riccardi, G 2003 Antibiotic resistance of benthic bacteria in fish-farm and control sediments of the Western Mediterranean. Aquaculture 219: 83–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevassus, B 1979 Hybridization in salmonids: results and perspectives. Aquaculture 17: 113–128CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clifford, SL, McGinnity, P and Ferguson, A 1998 Genetic changes in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations of northwest Irish rivers resulting from escapes of adult farm salmon. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 55: 358–363CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conover, DO and Present, TMC 1990 Countergradient variation in growth rate: compensation for length of growing season among Atlantic silversides from different latitudes. Oecologia 83: 316–324CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conover, DO and Schultz, ET 1995 Phenotypic similarity and the evolutionary significance of countergradient variation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10: 248–252CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa-Pierce, BA 2002 Ecology as the paradigm for the future of aquaculture. In: Costa-Pierce, BA (ed) Ecological Aquaculture: the Evolution of the Blue Revolution pp 339–372. Blackwell Science: Malden, Massachusetts, USACrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coughlan, J, McGinnity, P, O’Farrell, B, Dillane, E, Diserud, O, de Eyto, E, Farrell, K, Whelan, K, Stet, RJM and Cross, TF 2006 Temporal variation in an immune response gene (MHC I) in anadromous Salmo trutta in an Irish river before and during aquaculture activities. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1248–1255CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crozier, WW 1993 Evidence of genetic interaction between escaped farmed salmon and wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L). Aquaculture 113: 19–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cubbitt, KF, Butterworth, KG, Finstad, B, Huntingford, FA and McKinley, RS 2006 The consequence of escaped farmed salmon in the Pacific North West. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association 106: 44–52Google Scholar
Dahle, G, Jørstad, KE, Rusaas, HE and Otterå, H 2006 Genetic characteristics of broodstock collected from four Norwegian coastal cod (Gadus morhua) populations. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 209–215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, AM 2009 Parasites and biological invasions. Advances in Parasitology 68: 161–184CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duran, GM and Marshall, DL 2005 Ready-to-eat shrimp as an international vehicle of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Journal of Food Protection 68: 2395–2401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Einum, S and Fleming, IA 1997 Genetic divergence and interactions in the wild among native, farmed and hybrid Atlantic salmon. Journal of Fish Biology 50: 643–651CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, T, Hughes, RN and Howell, BR 2002 Artificial dietary regime may impair subsequent foraging behaviour of hatchery-reared turbot released into natural environment. Journal of Fish Biology 61: 252–264CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, T, Oidtmann, B, St-Hilaire, S, Turnbull, JF, North, BP, MacIntyre, CM, Nikolaidis, J, Hoyle, I, Kestin, SC and Knowles, TG 2008 Fin erosion in farmed fish. In: Branson, EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 121–149. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ersbak, K and Haase, BL 1983 Nutritional deprivation after stocking as a possible mechanism leading to mortality in stream-stocked brook trout. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 3: 142–1512.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ervik, A, Kupka Hansen, P and Jahnsen, T 1997 Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming I. The concept of the MOM system (Modeling: on growing fish farms-Monitoring). Aquaculture 15: 85–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FAO 2002 State of the World's Fisheries and Aquaculture. UN Food and Agriculture Organisation: Rome, ItalyGoogle Scholar
FAO 2006 State of World Aquaculture. UN Food and Agriculture Organisation: Rome, ItalyGoogle Scholar
Fernö, A, Huse, G, Jakobsen, PJ and Kristiansen, TS 2006 The role of fish learning skills in fisheries and aquaculture. In: Brown, C, Krause, J and Laland, K (eds) Fish Cognition and Behaviour pp 278–310. Blackwell Publishing: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Fiske, P and Lund, RA 1999 Escapes of reared salmon in coastal and riverine fisheries in the period 1989-1998. NINA Oppdragsmelding 603: 1–23Google Scholar
Fiske, P, Lund, RA and Hansen, LP 2006 Relationships between the frequency of farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, in wild salmon populations and fish farming activity in Norway 1989-2004. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1182–1189CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, IA and Einum, S 1997 Experimental tests of genetic divergence of farmed from wild Atlantic salmon due to domestication. ICES Journal of Marine Science 54: 1051–1063CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forbes, H 2007 Welfare in Cod Aquaculture. PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow, UKGoogle Scholar
Ford, JS and Myers, RA 2008 A global assessment of salmon aquaculture impacts on wild salmonids. Public Library of Science 6: e33.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060033Google ScholarPubMed
Foster, SA and Endler, JA 1999 Geographic Variation in Behaviour: Perspectives on Evolutionary Mechanisms. Oxford University Press: New York, USACrossRefGoogle Scholar
FSBI (Fisheries Society of the British Isles) 2002 Fish Welfare. Briefing Report 2. Granta Information Systems. http://www.le.ac.uk/biology/fsbi/welfare.pdfGoogle Scholar
Glover KA and Skåla Ø 2006 Temporal stability of sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis Kroyer populations on Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L of wild, farm and hybrid parentage. Journal of Fish Biology 68: 1795–1807CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, AK, Evans, MA and Thorgaard, GH 1993 Viability and development of diploid and triploid salmon hybrids. Aquaculture 27: 329–337Google Scholar
Hall, POJ, Anderson, LG, Holby, O, Kollberg, S and Samuelsson, M-O 1990 Chemical fluxes and mass balances in a marine fish cage farm: I. Carbon. Marine Ecology Progress Series 61: 61–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, KJ, Clemen, LA, Ellefson, ME and Johnson, HO 2001 Compound-specific, quantitative characterization of organic fluorochemicals in biological matrices. Environmental Science and Technology 35: 766–770CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, MM 2002 Estimating the long-term effects of stocking domesticated trout into wild brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations: an approach using microsatellite DNA analysis of historical and contemporary samples. Molecular Ecology 11: 1003–1015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heuch, PA, Bjørn, PA, Finstad, B, Holst, JC, Asplin, L and Nilsen, F 2005 A review of the Norwegian ‘National Action Plan Against Salmon Lice on Salmonids’: The effect on wild salmonids. Aquaculture 246: 79–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hindar, K, Fleming, IA, McGinnity, P and Diserud, A 2006 Genetic and ecological effects of salmon farming on wild salmon: modelling from experimental results. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1234–1247CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmer, M and Christensen, E 1992 Impact of marine fish cage farming on metabolism and sulphate reduction of underlying sediments. Marine Ecology Progress Series 80: 191–201CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmstrøm, K, Graslund, S, Wahlstrøm, A, Poungshompoo, S, Bengtsson, BE and Kautsky, N 2003 Antibiotic use in shrimp farming and implications for environmental impact and human health. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 38: 255–266CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hseu, J-R, Huang, W-B and Chu, Y-T 2007 What causes cannibalization-associated suffocation in cultured brown-marbled grouper, Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskål, 1775)? Aquaculture Research 38: 1056–1060CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huntingford, FA 2004 Implications of domestication and rearing conditions for the behaviour of cultivated fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 65A: 122–142CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huntingford, FA and Kadri, S 2008 Welfare and fish. In: Branson, EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 19–31 Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huntingford, FA, Adams, CE, Braithwaite, VA, Kadri, S, Pottinger, TG, Sandøe, P and Turnbull, JF 2006 Current understanding on fish welfare: a broad overview. Journal of Fish Biology 68: 332–372CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchings, JA 2000 Collapse and recovery of marine fishes. Nature 406: 882–885CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutchings, JA and Morris, DW 1985 The influence of phylogeny, size and behavior on patterns of covariation in salmonid life histories. Oikos 45: 118–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ICES 2006 Report of the Working Group on North Atlantic Salmon. WGNAS 13 April 2006, ICES CM 2006/ACFM 23. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea: Copenhagen, DenmarkGoogle Scholar
Iwama, G 1991 Interactions between aquaculture and the environment. Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 21: 177–216CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jobling, M 2002 Environmental factors and rates of development and growth. In: Hart, PJB and Reynolds, JD (eds) Handbook of Fish and Fisheries, Volume I pp 96–122. Blackwell: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Johnsen, BO and Jensen, AJ 1991 The Gyrodactylus story in Norway. Aquaculture 98: 289–302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karreman, GA 2006 Elements of an aquatic animal health programme: infectious haematopoietic necrosis in farmed Atlantic salmon in British Columbia. In: Scarfe, AD, Lee, C-S and O’Bryen, PJ (eds) Aquaculture Biosecurity: Prevention, Control and Eradication of Aquatic Animal Disease pp 155–164. Blackwell Publishing: UKGoogle Scholar
Krkošek, M, Lewis, MA, Morton, A, Frazer, LN and Volpe, JP 2006 Epizootics of wild fish induced by farm fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103: 15506–15510CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langård, L 2007 The Effect of Habitat Enrichment in the Early Rearing Environment influences Anti-predator Behaviour in Juvenile Cod. MA thesis, Department of Biology, University of Bergen, NorwayGoogle Scholar
Law, R 2000 Fishing, selection and phenotypic evolution. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 659–668CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawrence, AB 2008 What is animal welfare? In: Branson, EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 7–18. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Leitritz, E and Cronklin Lewis, R 1980 Trout & Salmon Culture. ANR Publications: California, USAGoogle Scholar
Lever, C 1996 Naturalized Fishes of the World. NY, Academic Press: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Levins, R 1969 Thermal acclimation and heath resistance in Drosophila species. American Naturalist 103: 483–499CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ling, SW 1977 Aquaculture in Southeast Asia. University of Washington Press: Seattle, USAGoogle Scholar
Longinova, GA and Krasnoperova, SV 1982 An attempt at crossbreeding Atlantic salmon and pink salmon (preliminary report). Aquaculture 27: 329–337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lura, H and Sægrov, H 1991 Documentation of successful spawning of escaped farmed female Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, in Norwegian rivers. Aquaculture 98: 151–159CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIntyre, CM, Ellis, T, North, BP and Turnbull, JF 2008 The influences of water quality on the welfare of farmed rainbow trout: a review In: Branson, EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 150–184. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markestad, A and Grave, K 1997 Reduction of antibacterial drug use in Norwegian fish farming due to vaccination. Fish Vaccinology 90: 365–369Google ScholarPubMed
Matthews, MA, Poole, WR, Thompson, CE, McKillen, J, Ferguson, A, Hindar, K and Wheelan, KF 2000 Incidence of hybridisation between Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, and brown trout, Salmo trutta L, in Ireland. Fisheries Management and Ecology 7: 337–347CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGinnity, P, Prodøhl, P, Ferguson, A, Hynes, R, O’Maoiléidigh, N, Baker, N, Cotter, D, O’Hea, B, Cooke, D, Rogan, G, Taggart, J and Cross, T 2003 Fitness reduction and potential extinction of wild populations of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, as a result of interactions with escaped farm salmon. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London Series B270: 2443–2450CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McVicar, AH 1997 Disease and parasite implications of the coexistence of wild and cultured Atlantic salmon populations. ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 54: 1093–1103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McVicar, AH 2004 Management actions in relation to the controversy about salmon lice infections in fish farms as a hazard to wild salmonid populations Aquaculture Research 35: 751–758CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moe, H, Dempster, T, Sunde, LM, Winther, U and Fredheim, A 2007 Technological solutions and operational measures to prevent escapes of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) from sea cages. Aquaculture Research 35: 91–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naylor, R and Burke, M 2005 Aquaculture and ocean resources: raising tigers of the sea. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30: 185–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naylor, R, Goldburg, R, Mooney, H, Beveridge, M, Clay, J, Folke, C, Kautsky, N, Lubchenco, J, Primavera, J and Williams, M 1998 Nature's subsidies to shrimp and salmon farming. Science 282: 883–884CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naylor, R, Goldburg, R, Primavera, J, Kautsky, N, Beveridge, M, Clay, J, Folke, C, Lubchenco, J, Mooney, H and Troell, M 2000 Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature 405: 1017–1024CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naylor, R, Hindar, K, Fleming, IA, Goldburg, R, Williams, S, Volpe, J, Whoriskey, F, Eagle, J, Kelso, D and Mangel, M 2005 Fugitive salmon: Assessing the risks of escaped fish from net-pen aquaculture. Bioscience 55: 427–437CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nødtvedt, M, Fernø, A, Steingrund, P and Gjøsæter, J 1999 Anti-predator behaviour of hatchery-reared and wild Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L), and the effect of predator training. In: Howell, BR, Moksness, E and Svåsand, T (eds) Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching pp 350–362. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Nordeide, JT and Salvanes, AGV 1991 Observations on reared newly released and wild cod (Gadus morhua L) and their potential predators. ICES Marine Science Symposium 192: 139–146Google Scholar
Oliva-Teles, A and Pimentel-Rodrigues, A 2004 Phosphorus requirement of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L) juveniles. Aquaculture Research 35: 636–664CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olla, BL, Davis, MW and Ryer, CH 1998 Understanding how the hatchery environment represses or promotes the development of behavioural survival skills. Bulletin of Marine Sciences 62: 531–550Google Scholar
Papatryphon, E, Petit, J, Kaushik, S and van der Werf, H 2004 Environmental impact assessment of salmonid feeds using life cycle assessment. Ambio 33: 316–323CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perry, AL, Low, PJ, Ellis, JR and Reynolds, JD 2005 Climate change and distribution shifts in marine fishes. Science 308: 1912–1915CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robb, DHF 2008 Welfare of fish at harvest. In: Branson, EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 19–31. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Rose, JD 2007 Anthropomorphism and ‘mental welfare’ of fishes. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 75: 139–154CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruiz, JM, Perez, M and Romero, J 2001 Effects of fish farm loadings on sea grass (Posidonia oceania) distribution, growth and photosynthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42: 749–760CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sæther, B-S, Bjørn, P-A and Dale, T 2007 Behavioural responses in wild cod (Gadus morhua L) exposed to fish holding water. Aquaculture 262: 260–267CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salvanes, AGV 2001 Ocean ranching. In: Steele, J, Thorpe, S and Turekian, K (eds) Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences pp 1973–1982. Academic Press: London, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salvanes, AGV and Braithwaite, VA 2005 Exposure to variable spatial information in the early rearing environment generates asymmetries in social interactions in cod (Gadus morhua). Behavioural Ecology & Sociobiology 59: 250–257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salvanes, AGV and Braithwaite, VA 2006 The need to understand the behaviour of fish we rear for mariculture or for restocking. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 346–354Google Scholar
Salvanes, AGV, Moberg, O and Braithwaite, VA 2007 Effects of early experience on group behaviour in fish. Animal Behaviour 74: 805–811CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salvanes, AGV, Skjæraasen, JE and Nilsen, T 2004 Sub-populations of coastal cod with different behaviour and life-history strategies. Marine Ecology Progress Series 267: 241–251CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skåla, ⊘, Wennevik, V and Glover, KA 2006 Evidence of temporal genetic change in wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, populations affected by farm escapees. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 1224–1233CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sørum, H 2006 Antimicrobial drug resistance in fish pathogens. In: Aarestrup, FM (ed) Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria of Animal Origin pp 213–238. American Society for Microbiology Press: Washington, DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Steingrund, P and Fernø, A 1997 Feeding behaviour of reared and wild cod and the effect of learning: two strategies of feeding on two-spotted gobies. Journal of Fish Biology 51: 334–348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stigebrandt, A, Aure, J, Ervik, A and Kupka Hansen, P 2004 Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming III. A model for estimation of the holding capacity in the Modelling-ongrowing fish farm-monitoring system. Aquaculture 234: 239–261CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strand, D 2007 The effect of early rearing environment and social learning on foraging behaviour in juvenile cod (Gadus morhua L). MA Thesis, Department of Biology, University of Bergen, NorwayGoogle Scholar
Sutherland, WJ 1996 From Individual Behaviour to Population Ecology. Oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Svane, I and Barnett, J 2008 The occurrence of benthic scavengers and their consumption at tuna farms off Port Lincoln, South Australia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 363: 110–117CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, EB 1991 A review of local adaptation in Salmonidae, with particular reference to Pacific and Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 98: 185–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teichert-Coddington, D and Green, BW 1993 Tilapia yield improvement through maintenance of minimal oxygen concentrations in experimental grow-out ponds in Honduras. Aquaculture 118: 63–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torstensen, BE, Espe, M, Sanden, M, Stubhaug, I, Waagbø, R, Hemre, G-I, Fontanillas, R, Nordgarden, U, Hevrøy, EM, Olsvik, P and Berntssen, MHG 2008 Novel production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) protein based on combined replacement of fish meal and fish oil with plant meal and vegetable oil blends. Aquaculture 285: 193–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnbull, JF, North, BP, Ellis, T, Adams, CE, Bron, J, MacIntyre, CM and Huntingford, FA 2008 Stocking density and the welfare of farmed salmonids In: Branson, JE (ed) Fish Welfare pp 111–120. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uglem, I, Bjørn, PA, Dale, T, Kerwath, S, ⊘kland, F, Nilsen, RA, Fleming, I and McKinley, RS 2008 Movements and spatiotemporal distribution of escaped farmed and local wild Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L). Aquaculture Research 39: 158–170CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall, T 2008 Diseases and medicines: the welfare implications. In: Branson, EJ (ed) Fish Welfare pp 195–201. Blackwell Publishing: Oxford, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, ED and Fausch, KD 2003 Interactions between hatchery and wild salmonids in streams: differences in biology and evidence for competition. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60: 1018–1036CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, M 2003 What Price Farmed Fish: A Review of the Environmental and Social Costs of Farming. SeaWeb Aquaculture Clearinghouse: UKGoogle Scholar