Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T06:43:58.721Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Technical review of the energy and protein requirements of growing pigs: protein

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 August 2016

C.T. Whittemore ,
D.M. Green  and
P.W. Knap
C.T. Whittemore*
Affiliation:
University of Edinburgh, Agriculture Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
D.M. Green
Affiliation:
University of Edinburgh, Agriculture Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
P.W. Knap
Affiliation:
PIC International Group, PO Box 1630, D-24826, Schleswig, Germany
*
†E-mail:[email protected]
Get access

Abstract

A review of work reported in the literature was used to present quantitative descriptions of protein use in the growing pig. These are detailed in the text, which also points to preferred values, and to anomalies and lacunae. The review was prepared with the objective of allowing from its content the inclusive and quantitative modelling of amino acid requirement. Requirement was approached as the sum of the component factors: maintenance and protein retention. Ileal true digestible protein and amino acid requirements are presented in a form consistent with that forwarded for energy. Thus both energy and protein elements can be conceptualized within a single coherent framework. Priority uses for absorbed amino acids were assumed to be (a) to support endogenous protein losses resultant from the passage of food and incomplete re-absorption prior to the terminal ileum, (b) to replace lost hair and skin, and (c) to cover the basic maintenance losses which will occur as a result of minimal protein turn-over even when protein retention is zero. The bulk of the protein requirement was directly linked to the daily rate of protein retention, for which the linear-plateau response was accepted. For determination of the maximum rate of protein retention the Gompertz function was proposed, although the use of a single value throughout the growth period was not dismissed. The balance of amino acids for protein retention is specified as different from that for maintenance. Central to the approach was the proposal that the inefficiency of use of ileal digested ideal protein, even when not supplied in excess, was an expression of protein losses occurring as a result of protein turn-over. The requirement for the satisfaction of the losses from protein turn-over occurring as a consequence of protein retention, and therefore additional to the requirements for maintenance, was identified. Quantification was attempted with sufficient success to warrant its inclusion into requirement estimation. It was concluded that this element addressed previously inadequately explained protein utilization inefficiencies. Algorithms are presented based upon protein turn-over which appear to be consistent with empirical findings.

Keywords

nutrient requirementspigsprotein.
Type
Invited paper
Information
Animal Science , Volume 73 , Issue 3 , December 2001 , pp. 363 - 373
Copyright
Copyright © British Society of Animal Science 2001

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agricultural Research Council. 1981. The nutrient requirements of pigs. Agricultural Research Council, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK.Google Scholar
AmiPig. 2000. Ileal standardised digestibility of amino acids in feedstuffs for pigs. (AFZ, Ajinomoto Eurolysine, Aventis Animal Nutrition, INRA, ITCF). Association Francaise de Zootechnie, Paris. CD.Google Scholar
Batterham, E. S. 1993. Protein-energy relationships. In Principles of pig science (ed. Cole, D.J.A., Wiseman, J. and Varley, M. A.), pp. 107–121. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham.Google Scholar
Batterham, E. S., Andersen, L. M., Baigent, D. R. and White, E. 1990. Utilisation of ileal digestible amino acids by growing pigs: effect of dietary lysine concentration on efficiency of lysine retention. British Journal of Nutrition 64: 81–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bikker, P. 1994. Protein and lipid accretion in body components of growing pigs. Ph.D. thesis, University of Wageningen.Google Scholar
Black, J. L. 1995. Modelling energy metabolism in the pig — critical evaluation of a simple reference model. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. Moughan, P.J., Verstegen, M.W.A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M.I.), pp. 87–102. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Black, J. L. 2000. Amino acid and energy requirements. In Feed evaluation principles and practice (ed. Moughan, P.J., Verstegen, M.W.A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 189–207. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Black, J. L., Bray, H. J. and Giles, L. R. 1999. The thermal and infectious environment. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 71–79. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.Google Scholar
Black, J. L., Campbell, R. G., Williams, I. H., James, K. J. and Davies, G. T. 1986. Simulation of energy and amino acid utilization in the pig. Research and Development in Agriculture 3: 121–145.Google Scholar
Black, J. L., Davies, G. T., Bray, H. J., Giles, L. R. and Chapple, R. P. 1995. Modelling the effects of genotype, environment and health on nutrient utilisation. In Modelling nutrient utilisation in farm animals (ed. Danfaer, A. and Lescoat, P.), pp. 85–105. National Institute of Animal Science, Foulum.Google Scholar
Black, J. L. and Lange, C. F. M. de. 1995. Introduction to the principles of nutrient partitioning for growth. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. Moughan, P.J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 33–45. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Boisen, S. 2000. A simple nutient-based production model for the growing pig. In Modelling nutrient utilisation in farm animals (ed. McNamara, J. P., France, J. and Beever, D. E.), pp. 183–196. CAB International, Wallingford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boisen, S., Hvelplund, T. and Weisbjerg, M. R. 2000. Ideal amino acid profiles as a basis for feed protein evaluation. Livestock Production Science 64: 239–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boisen, S. and Moughan, P. J. 1996. Different expressions of dietary protein and amino acid digestibility in pig feeds and their application in protein evaluation: a theoretical approach. Acta Agriculturæ Scandinavica Section A Animal Science 46: 165–172.Google Scholar
Buttery, P. J. and D’Mello, J. P. F. 1994. Amino acid metabolism in farm animals. In Amino acids in farm animal nutrition (ed. D’Mello, J. F. P.), pp. 1–10. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Campbell, R. G., Taverner, M. R. and Curic, D. M. 1985. Effects of sex and energy intake between 48 and 90 kg live weight on protein deposition in growing pigs. Animal Production 40: 497–503.Google Scholar
Carr, J. R., Boorman, K. N. and Cole, D. J. A. 1977. Nitrogen retention in the pig. British Journal of Nutrition 37: 143–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Close, W. H. and Cole, D. J. A. 2000. Nutrition of sows and boars. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham.Google Scholar
Dourmad, J. Y., Seve, B., Latimier, P., Boisen, S., Fernandez, J., Peet-Schwering, C. M. C. van der and Jongbloed, A. W. 1999. Nitrogen consumption, utilisation and losses in pig production in France, The Netherlands and Denmark. Livestock Production Science 58: 261–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunkin, A. C., Black, J. L. and James, K. J. 1986. Nitrogen balance in relation to energy intake in entire male pigs weighing 75 kg. British Journal of Nutrition 55: 201–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edmunds, B. K. and Buttery, P. J. 1980. Protein and energy metabolism in the growing pig. In Energy metabolism (ed. Mount, L. E.), pp. 129–133. Butterworths, London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, A. C. and Campbell, R. G. 1993. Energy-protein interactions in pigs. In Recent developments in pig nutrition 2 (ed. Cole, D.J.A., Haresign, W. and Garnsworthy, P.C.), pp. 30–46. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham.Google Scholar
Emmans, G. C. 1988. Genetic components of potential and actual growth. In Animal breeding opportunities (ed. Land, R. B., Bulfield, G. and Hill, W. G.), British Society of Animal Production occasional publication no. 12, pp. 153–181.Google Scholar
Emmans, G. C. and Kyriazakis, I. 1999. Growth and body composition. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 181–198. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Fan, M. Z., Sauer, W. C. and McBurney, M. I. 1995. Estimation by regression analysis of endogenous amino acid levels in digesta collected from the distal ileum of pigs. Journal of Animal Science 73: 2319–2328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferguson, N. S. 1988. An approach to modelling feed intake, body composition and nutrient requirements in growing pigs. M. Sc. thesis, University of Natal.Google Scholar
Fisher, C. 1976. Protein in diets of the pullet and laying hens. In Protein metabolism and nutrition (ed. Cole, D. J. A., Boorman, K. N., Buttery, P.J., Lewis, D., Neale, R.J. and Swan, H.), European Association for Animal Production publication no. 16, pp. 323–351. Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Fuller, M. F. 1980. Protein and amino acid nutrition of the pig. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 39: 193–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, M. F., McWilliam, R., Wang, T. C. and Giles, L. R. 1989. The optimum dietary amino acid pattern of growing pigs. 2. Requirements for maintenance and for tissue protein deposition. British Journal of Nutrition 62: 225–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldspink, D. F. and Kelly, F. J. 1984. Protein turn-over and growth in the whole body, liver, and kidney of the rat from fetus to senility. Biochemical Journal 217: 507–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greef, K. H. de and Verstegen, M. W. A. 1995. Evaluation of a concept on energy partitioning in growing pigs. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. Moughan, P. J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 137–150. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Hodgkinson, S. M. and Moughan, P. J. 2000a. Amino acids — the collection of ileal digesta and characterisation of the endogenous component. In Feed evaluation principles and practice (ed. Moughan, P. J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 105–124. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Hodgkinson, S. M. and Moughan, P. J. 2000b. Amino acids — digestibility, availability, and metabolism. In Feed evaluation principles and practice (ed. Moughan, P.J.. Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M.I.), pp. 125–132. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Huxley, J. 1932. Problems of relative growth. Methuen, London.Google Scholar
Kielanowski, J. 1969. Energy and protein metabolism in growing pigs. Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agricola 3: 207–216.Google Scholar
Knap, P. W. 1995. Aspects of stochasticity: variation between animals. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. P.J.Moughan, , Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M.I.), pp. 165–172. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Kyriazakis, I. 1999. A quantitative biology of the pig. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Kyriazakis, I. and Emmans, G. C. 1992a. The effects of varying protein and energy intakes on the growth and body composition of pigs. 1. The effects of energy intake at constant high protein intake. British Journal of Nutrition 68: 603–613.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kyriazakis, I. and Emmans, G. C. 1992b. The effects of varying protein and energy intakes on the growth and body composition of pigs. 2. The effects of varying both energy and protein intake. British Journal of Nutrition 68: 615–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyriazakis, I., Emmans, G. C. and McDaniel, R. 1993. Whole body amino acid composition of the growing pig. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 62: 29–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lange, C. F. M. de. 1995. Framework for a simplified model to demonstrate principles of nutrient partitioning for growth in the pig. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. Moughan, P.J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 71–86. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Le Bellego, L., Noblet, J., Milgen, J. van and Dubois, S. 2000. Effects de la reduction du taux de proteines de l’aliment et de la frequence de distribution des repas sur l’utilisation de l’energie chez le porc en croissance. Journées de la Recherche Porcine en France 32: 217–225.Google Scholar
Mahan, D. C. and Shields, R. G. 1998. Essential and non-essential amino acid composition of pigs from birth to 145 kg of body weight, and comparison to other studies. Journal of Animal Science 76: 513–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milgen, J. van, Quiniou, N. and Noblet, J. 2000. Modelling the relation between energy intake and protein and lipid deposition in growing pigs. Animal Science 71: 119–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milligan, L. P. and Summers, M. 1986. The biological basis of maintenance and its relevance to assessing responses to nutrients. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 45: 185–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millward, D. J., Garlick, P. J., James, W. P. T., Sender, P. M. and Waterlow, J. C. 1976 Protein turn-over. In Protein metabolism and nutrition (ed. Cole, D.J.A., Boorman, K.N., Buttery, P.J., D.Lewis, , Neale, R.J. and Swan, H.), European Association for Animal Production publication no. 16, pp. 49–69. Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Millward, D. J., Nnanyelugo, D. O. and Garlick, P. J. 1974. Developmental changes in muscle protein metabolism in congenitally malnourished rats. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 33: 55A.Google ScholarPubMed
Mohn, S. and Lange, C. F. M. de. 1998. The effect of body weight on the upper limit to protein deposition in a defined population of growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 76: 124–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morel, P. C. H., Pearson, G., Derix, H., Schutte, B. and Moughan, P. J. 1993. On-farm determination of the upper limit to body protein deposition in growing pigs. In Manipulating pig production IV (ed. Batterham, E.S.), p. 221. Australasian Pig Science Association, Attwood Victoria.Google Scholar
Mosenthin, R., Sauer, W. C., Blank, R., Huisman, J. and Fan, M. Z. 2000. The concept of digestible amino acids in diet formulation for pigs. Livestock Production Science 64: 265–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moughan, P. J. 1989. Simulation of the daily partitioning of lysine in the 50 kg liveweight pig — a factorial approach to estimating amino acid requirements for growth and maintenance. Research and Development in Agriculture 6: 7–14.Google Scholar
Moughan, P. J. 1993. Towards an improved utilisation of dietary amino acid by the growing pig. In Recent developments in pig nutrition 2 (ed. Cole, D. J. A., Haresign, W. and Garnsworthy, P.C.), pp. 117–136. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham.Google Scholar
Moughan, P. J. 1995. Modelling protein metabolism in the pig — critical evaluation of a simple reference model. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. Moughan, P.J., Verstegen, M.W.A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M.I.), pp. 103–112. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Moughan, P. J. 1999. Protein metabolism in the growing pig. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 299–331. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.Google Scholar
Moughan, P. J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M.I. 1995. Modelling growth in the pig. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
National Research Council. 1998. Nutrient requirements of swine, 10th edition. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington DC.Google Scholar
Nyachoti, C. M., Lange, C. F. M.de, McBride, B. W. and Schulze, H. 1997. Significance of endogenous gut nitrogen losses in the nutrition of growing pigs: a review. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 77: 149–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peet-Schwering, C. M. C. van der, Hartog, L. A. den and Vos, H. J. P. M. 1999. Application of growth models for pigs in practice. Pig News and Information 20: 49–54.Google Scholar
Quiniou, N., Dourmad, J.-Y. and Noblet, J. 1996. Effect of energy intake on the performance of different types of pig from 45 to 100 kg body weight. 1. Protein and lipid deposition. Animal Science 63: 277–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quiniou, N., Noblet, J., Dourmad, J.-Y. and Milgen, J. van. 1999. Influence of energy supply on growth characteristics in pigs and consequences for growth modelling. Livestock Production Science 60: 317–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quiniou, N., Noblet, J., Milgen, J. van and Dourmad, J.-Y. 1995. Effect of energy intake on performance, nutrient and tissue gain and protein and energy utilization in growing boars. Animal Science 61: 133–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, D. S. and McCracken, K. J. 1990. Effect of protein intake on energy and nitrogen balance and chemical composition of gain in growing boars of high genetic potential. Animal Production 51: 389–397.Google Scholar
Rao, D. S. and McCracken, K. J. 1991. Effect of energy intake on protein and energy metabolism of boars of high genetic potential for lean growth. Animal Production 52: 499–507.Google Scholar
Reeds, P. 1989. Regulation of protein turn-over. In Animal growth regulation (ed. Campion, D.R., Hausman, G.J. and Martin, R. J.), pp. 183–210. Plenum Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeds, P. J. and Fuller, M. F. 1983. Nutrient intake and protein turn-over. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 42: 463–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rerat, A. 1972. Protein nutrition and metabolism in the growing pig. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews 42: 13–39.Google ScholarPubMed
Riis, P. M. 1983a. The pools of cellular nutrients: amino acids. In World animal science A3. Dynamic biochemistry of animal production (ed. Riis, P. M.), pp. 151–172. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Riis, P. M. 1983b. The pools of tissue constituents and products: proteins. In World animal science A3. Dynamic biochemistry of animal production (ed. Riis, P. M.), pp. 75–108. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Schinckel, A. P. 1999. Describing the pig. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 9–38. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Schinckel, A. P. and Lange, C. F. M. de. 1996. Characterization of growth parameters needed as inputs for pig growth models. Journal of Animal Science 74: 2021–2036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seve, B. and Hess, V. 2000. Amino acid digestibility in formulation of diets for pigs: present interest and limitations, future prospects. In Recent advances in animal nutrition 2000 (ed. Garnsworthy, P. C. and Wiseman, J.), pp. 167–181. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham.Google Scholar
Stranks, M. H., Cooke, B. C., Fairburn, C. B., Fowler, N. G., Kirby, P. S., McCracken, K. J., Morgan, C. A., Palmer, F. G. and Peers, D. G. 1988. Nutrient allowances for growing pigs. Research and Development in Agriculture 5: 71–88.Google Scholar
Susenbeth, A., Dickel, J., Diekenhorst, A. and Hohler, D. 1999. The effect of energy intake, genotype, and body weight on protein retention in pigs when dietary lysine is the first-limiting factor. Journal of Animal Science 77: 2985–2989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, J. M., Sun, F., Kuczek, A. P., Schinckel, A. P. and Stewart, T. S. 1996. The effect of genotype and sex on the patterns of protein accretion in pigs. Animal Science 63: 265–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tullis, J. B., Whittemore, C. T. and Phillips, P. 1986. Compensatory nitrogen retention in growing pigs following a period of N deprivation. British Journal of Nutrition 56: 259–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, J. R., Schinckel, A. P., Chen, W., Forrest, J. C. and Coe, B. L. 1999. Analysis of body composition changes of swine during growth and development. Journal of Animal Science 77: 1442–1466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whittemore, C. T. 1979. Pig production. Longman, London.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1980. The use of a computer model in determining the nutrient requirement of pigs. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 39: 205–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whittemore, C. T. 1983. Development of recommended energy and protein allowances for growing pigs. Agricultural Systems 47: 415–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1995. Response to the environmental and welfare imperatives by UK livestock production industries and research services. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 8: 65–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1998. The science and practice of pig production, second edition. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1999. The case for net energy and net protein models for performance prediction in pigs. Pig News and Information 20: 45–48.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 2000. A commentary upon the US Natural Research Council (NRC, 1998) protein and energy requirements of swine. Pig News and Information 21: 15–22.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. and Fawcett, R. H. 1976. Theoretical aspects of a flexible model to simulate protein and lipid growth in pigs. Animal Production 22: 87–96.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T., Tullis, J. B. and Emmans, G. C. 1988. Protein growth in pigs. Animal Production 46: 437–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittemore, C. T., Tullis, J. B. and Hastie, S. W. 1978. Efficiency of use of nitrogen from dried microbial cells after a period of N deprivation in growing pigs. British Journal of Nutrition 39: 193–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiseman, J., Jagger, S., Cole, D. J. A. and Haresign, W. 1991. The digestion and utilization of amino acids of heat-treated fish meal by growing/finishing pigs. Animal Production 53: 215–225.Google Scholar