Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T00:20:50.608Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The role of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus structural and non-structural proteins in virus pathogenesis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 April 2010

Nedzad Music  and
Carl A. Gagnon
Nedzad Music
Affiliation:
Service de diagnostic, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada Groupe de recherche sur les maladies infectieuses du porc (GREMIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
Carl A. Gagnon*
Affiliation:
Service de diagnostic, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada Groupe de recherche sur les maladies infectieuses du porc (GREMIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada Centre de recherche en infectiologie porcine (CRIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is an economically devastating viral disease affecting the swine industry worldwide. The etiological agent, PRRS virus (PRRSV), possesses a RNA viral genome with nine open reading frames (ORFs). The ORF1a and ORF1b replicase-associated genes encode the polyproteins pp1a and pp1ab, respectively. The pp1a is processed in nine non-structural proteins (nsps): nsp1α, nsp1β, and nsp2 to nsp8. Proteolytic cleavage of pp1ab generates products nsp9 to nsp12. The proteolytic pp1a cleavage products process and cleave pp1a and pp1ab into nsp products. The nsp9 to nsp12 are involved in virus genome transcription and replication. The 3′ end of the viral genome encodes four minor and three major structural proteins. The GP2a, GP3 and GP4 (encoded by ORF2a, 3 and 4), are glycosylated membrane associated minor structural proteins. The fourth minor structural protein, the E protein (encoded by ORF2b), is an unglycosylated membrane associated protein. The viral envelope contains two major structural proteins: a glycosylated major envelope protein GP5 (encoded by ORF5) and an unglycosylated membrane M protein (encoded by ORF6). The third major structural protein is the nucleocapsid N protein (encoded by ORF7). All PRRSV non-structural and structural proteins are essential for virus replication, and PRRSV infectivity is relatively intolerant to subtle changes within the structural proteins. PRRSV virulence is multigenic and resides in both the non-structural and structural viral proteins. This review discusses the molecular characteristics, biological and immunological functions of the PRRSV structural and nsps and their involvement in the virus pathogenesis.

Keywords

PRRSviral pathogenesisstructural proteinsnon-structural proteinsvirulencemolecular characteristicsimmunological functions
Type
Review Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , December 2010 , pp. 135 - 163
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Albina, E (1997). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome: ten years of experience (1986–1996) with this undesirable viral infection. Veterinary Research 28: 305–352.Google ScholarPubMed
Allende, R, Kutish, GF, Laegreid, W, Lu, Z, Lewis, TL, Rock, DL, Friesen, J, Galeota, JA, Doster, AR and Osorio, FA (2000). Mutations in the genome of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus responsible for the attenuation phenotype. Archives of Virology 145: 1149–1161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allende, R, Lewis, TL, Lu, Z, Rock, DL, Kutish, GF, Ali, A, Doster, AR and Osorio, FA (1999). North American and European porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses differ in non-structural protein coding regions. Journal of General Virology 80: 307–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreyev, VG, Wesley, RD, Mengeling, WL, Vorwald, AC and Lager, KM (1997). Genetic variation and phylogenetic relationships of 22 porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) field strains based on sequence analysis of open reading frame 5. Archives of Virology 142: 993–1001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ansari, IH, Kwon, B, Osorio, FA and Pattnaik, AK (2006). Influence of N-linked glycosylation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus GP5 on virus infectivity, antigenicity, and ability to induce neutralizing antibodies. Journal of Virology 80: 3994–4004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arrese, M and Portela, A (1996). Serine 3 is critical for phosphorylation at the N-terminal end of the nucleoprotein of influenza virus A/Victoria/3/75. Journal of Virology 70: 3385–3391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bastos, RG, Dellagostin, OA, Barletta, RG, Doster, AR, Nelson, E and Osorio, FA (2002). Construction and immunogenicity of recombinant Mycobacterium bovis BCG expressing GP5 and M protein of porcine reproductive respiratory syndrome virus. Vaccine 21: 21–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bastos, RG, Dellagostin, OA, Barletta, RG, Doster, AR, Nelson, E, Zuckermann, F and Osorio, FA (2004). Immune response of pigs inoculated with Mycobacterium bovis BCG expressing a truncated form of GP5 and M protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Vaccine 22: 467–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bautista, EM, Faaberg, KS, Mickelson, D and McGruder, ED (2002). Functional properties of the predicted helicase of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Virology 298: 258–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bautista, EM, Goyal, SM, Yoon, IJ, Joo, HS and Collins, JE (1993). Comparison of porcine alveolar macrophages and CL 2621 for the detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus and anti-PRRS antibody. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 5: 163–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benfield, DA, Nelson, E, Collins, JE, Harris, L, Goyal, SM, Robison, D, Christianson, WT, Morrison, RB, Gorcyca, D and Chladek, D (1992). Characterization of swine infertility and respiratory syndrome (SIRS) virus (isolate ATCC VR-2332). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 4: 127–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beura, LK, Sarkar, SN, Kwon, B, Subramaniam, S, Jones, K, Pattnaik, AK and Osorio, FA (2010). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nonstructural protein 1β modulates host innate immune response by antagonizing IRF3 activation. Journal of Virology 84: 1574–1584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beyer, J, Fichtner, D, Schirrmeier, H, Polster, U, Weiland, E and Wege, H (2000). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV): kinetics of infection in lymphatic organs and lung. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series B. Infectious Diseases and Veterinary Public Health 47: 9–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bilodeau, R, Dea, S, Sauvageau, RA and Martineau, GP (1991). ‘Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome’ in Quebec [letter]. The Veterinary Record 129: 102–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloemraad, M, de Kluijver, EP, Petersen, A, Burkhardt, GE and Wensvoort, G (1994). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome: temperature and pH stability of Lelystad virus and its survival in tissue specimens from viraemic pigs. Veterinary Microbiology 42: 361–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braakman, I and van Anken, E (2000). Folding of viral envelope glycoproteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. Traffic 1: 533–539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brierley, I (1995). Ribosomal frameshifting viral RNAs. Journal of General Virology 76 (Pt 8): 1885–1892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, NA, Davis-Poynter, N, Vanderplasschen, A and Alcami, A (2003). Glycoprotein G isoforms from some alphaherpesviruses function as broad-spectrum chemokine binding proteins. The EMBO Journal 22: 833–846.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cafruny, WA, Duman, RG, Wong, GH, Said, S, Ward-Demo, P, Rowland, RR and Nelson, EA (2006). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection spreads by cell-to-cell transfer in cultured MARC-145 cells, is dependent on an intact cytoskeleton, and is suppressed by drug-targeting of cell permissiveness to virus infection. Virology Journal 3: 90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvert, JG, Slade, DE, Shields, SL, Jolie, R, Mannan, RM, Ankenbauer, RG and Welch, SK (2007). CD163 expression confers susceptibility to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses. Journal of Virology 81: 7371–7379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cancel-Tirado, SM, Evans, RB and Yoon, KJ (2004). Monoclonal antibody analysis of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus epitopes associated with antibody-dependent enhancement and neutralization of virus infection. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 102: 249–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cancel-Tirado, SM and Yoon, KJ (2003). Antibody dependent enhancement of virus infection and disease. Viral Immunology 16: 69–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavanagh, D (1997). Nidovirales: a new order comprising Coronaviridae and Arteriviridae. Archives of Virology 142: 629–633.Google ScholarPubMed
Chang, HW, Jeng, CR, Lin, CM, Liu, JJ, Chang, CC, Tsai, YC, Chia, MY and Pang, VF (2007). The involvement of Fas/FasL interaction in porcine circovirus type 2 and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus co-inoculation-associated lymphocyte apoptosis in vitro. Veterinary Microbiology 122: 72–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, HW, Jeng, CR, Liu, JJ, Lin, TL, Chang, CC, Chia, MY, Tsai, YC and Pang, VF (2005). Reduction of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection in swine alveolar macrophages by porcine circovirus 2 (PCV2)-induced interferon-alpha. Veterinary Microbiology 108: 167–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, CJ and Makino, S (2004). Murine coronavirus replication induces cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase. Journal of Virology 78: 5658–5669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, H, Wurm, T, Britton, P, Brooks, G and Hiscox, JA (2002). Interaction of the coronavirus nucleoprotein with nucleolar antigens and the host cell. Journal of Virology 76: 5233–5250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, Z, Li, K and Plagemann, PG (2000). Neuropathogenicity and sensitivity to antibody neutralization of lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus are determined by polylactosaminoglycan chains on the primary envelope glycoprotein. Virology 266: 88–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, Z, Sun, LZ, Zhou, X, Guan, X, Christopher-Hennings, J, Nelson, EA and Fang, Y (2010). Identification of two auto-cleavage products of nonstructural protein 1 (nsp1) in porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infected cells: nsp1 function as interferon antagonist. Virology 398: 87–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheon, DS, Chae, C and Lee, YS (1997). Detection of nucleic acids of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in the lungs of naturally infected piglets as determined by in-situ hybridization. Journal of Comparative Pathology 117: 157–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choi, C and Chae, C (2002). Expression of tumour necrosis factor-alpha is associated with apoptosis in lungs of pigs experimentally infected with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Research in Veterinary Science 72: 45–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christianson, WT (1992). Stillbirths, mummies, abortions, and early embryonic death. The Veterinary Clinics of North America, Food Animal Practice 8: 623–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, JE, Benfield, DA, Christianson, WT, Harris, L, Hennings, JC, Shaw, DP, Goyal, SM, McCullough, S, Morrison, RB, Joo, HS, Gorcyca, D, Chladek, D (1992). Isolation of swine infertility and respiratory syndrome virus (isolate ATCC VR-2332) in North America and experimental reproduction of the disease in gnotobiotic pigs. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 4: 117–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costers, S, Lefebvre, DJ, Delputte, PL and Nauwynck, HJ (2008). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus modulates apoptosis during replication in alveolar macrophages. Archives of Virology 153: 1453–1465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das, PB, Dinh, PX, Ansari, IH, de Lima, M, Osorio, FA and Pattnaik, AK (2010). The minor envelope glycoproteins GP2a and GP4 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus interact with the receptor CD163. Journal of Virology 84: 1731–1740.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Haan, CA, Kuo, L, Masters, PS, Vennema, H and Rottier, PJ (1998). Coronavirus particle assembly: primary structure requirements of the membrane protein. Journal of Virology 72: 6838–6850.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Lima, M, Ansari, IH, Das, PB, Ku, BJ, Martinez-Lobo, FJ, Pattnaik, AK and Osorio, FA (2009). GP3 is a structural component of the PRRSV type II (US) virion. Virology 390: 31–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Lima, M, Kwon, B, Ansari, IH, Pattnaik, AK, Flores, EF and Osorio, FA (2008). Development of a porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus differentiable (DIVA) strain through deletion of specific immunodominant epitopes. Vaccine 26: 3594–3600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Lima, M, Pattnaik, AK, Flores, EF and Osorio, FA (2006). Serologic marker candidates identified among B-cell linear epitopes of Nsp2 and structural proteins of a North American strain of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Virology 353: 410–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Vries, AA, Chirnside, ED, Horzinek, MC and Rottier, PJ (1992). Structural proteins of equine arteritis virus. Journal of Virology 66: 6294–6303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Vries, AA, Post, SM, Raamsman, MJ, Horzinek, MC and Rottier, PJ (1995). The two major envelope proteins of equine arteritis virus associate into disulfide-linked heterodimers. Journal of Virology 69: 4668–4674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dea, S, Bilodeau, R, Athanasious, R, Sauvageau, RA and Martineau, GP (1992). PRRS syndrome in Quebec: isolation of a virus serologically related to Lelystad virus [letter]. The Veterinary Record 130: 167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dea, S, Gagnon, CA, Mardassi, H and Milane, G (1996). Antigenic variability among North American and European strains of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus as defined by monoclonal antibodies to the matrix protein. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34: 1488–1493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dea, S, Gagnon, CA, Mardassi, H, Pirzadeh, B and Rogan, D (2000a). Current knowledge on the structural proteins of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus: comparison of the North American and European isolates. Archives of Virology 145: 659–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dea, S, Wilson, L, Therrien, D and Cornaglia, E (2000b). Competitive ELISA for detection of antibodies to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus using recombinant E. coli-expressed nucleocapsid protein as antigen. Journal of Virological Methods 87: 109–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dee, S, Otake, S, Oliveira, S and Deen, J (2009). Evidence of long distance airborne transport of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Veterinary Research 40: 39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delputte, PL and Nauwynck, HJ (2004). Porcine arterivirus infection of alveolar macrophages is mediated by sialic acid on the virus. Journal of Virology 78: 8094–8101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delputte, PL, Van Breedam, W, Barbe, F, Van Reeth, K and Nauwynck, HJ (2007a). IFN-alpha treatment enhances porcine arterivirus infection of monocytes via upregulation of the porcine arterivirus receptor sialoadhesin. Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research 27: 757–766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delputte, PL, Van Breedam, W, Delrue, I, Oetke, C, Crocker, PR and Nauwynck, HJ (2007b). Porcine arterivirus attachment to the macrophage-specific receptor sialoadhesin is dependent on the sialic acid-binding activity of the N-terminal immunoglobulin domain of sialoadhesin. Journal of Virology 81: 9546–9550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delputte, PL, Vanderheijden, N, Nauwynck, HJ and Pensaert, MB (2002). Involvement of the matrix protein in attachment of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus to a heparinlike receptor on porcine alveolar macrophages. Journal of Virology 76: 4312–4320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
den Boon, JA, Faaberg, KS, Meulenberg, JJ, Wassenaar, AL, Plagemann, PG, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (1995). Processing and evolution of the N-terminal region of the arterivirus replicase ORF1a protein: identification of two papainlike cysteine proteases. Journal of Virology 69: 4500–4505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
den Boon, JA, Snijder, EJ, Chirnside, ED, de Vries, AA, Horzinek, MC and Spaan, WJ (1991). Equine arteritis virus is not a togavirus but belongs to the coronavirus-like superfamily. Journal of Virology 65: 2910–2920.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denac, H, Moser, C, Tratschin, JD and Hofmann, MA (1997). An indirect ELISA for the detection of antibodies against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus using recombinant nucleocapsid protein as antigen. Journal of Virological Methods 65: 169–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doan, DN and Dokland, T (2003a). Cloning, expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the structural domain of the nucleocapsid N protein from porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Acta Crystallographica. Section D, Biological Crystallography 59: 1504–1506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doan, DN and Dokland, T (2003b). Structure of the nucleocapsid protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Structure (Cambridge) 11: 1445–1451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dobbe, JC, van der Meer, Y, Spaan, WJ and Snijder, EJ (2001). Construction of chimeric arteriviruses reveals that the ectodomain of the major glycoprotein is not the main determinant of equine arteritis virus tropism in cell culture. Virology 288: 283–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doms, RW, Lamb, RA, Rose, JK and Helenius, A (1993). Folding and assembly of viral membrane proteins. Virology 193: 545–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drew, TW, Lowings, JP and Yapp, F (1997). Variation in open reading frames 3, 4 and 7 among porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolates in the UK. Veterinary Microbiology 55: 209–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drew, TW, Meulenberg, JJ, Sands, JJ and Paton, DJ (1995). Production, characterization and reactivity of monoclonal antibodies to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 76: 1361–1369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Du, Y, Zuckermann, FA and Yoo, D (2010). Myristoylation of the small envelope protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus is non-essential for virus infectivity but promotes its growth. Virus Research 147: 294–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duan, X, Nauwynck, HJ, Favoreel, HW and Pensaert, MB (1998). Identification of a putative receptor for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus on porcine alveolar macrophages. Journal of Virology 72: 4520–4523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duan, X, Nauwynck, HJ and Pensaert, MB (1997). Effects of origin and state of differentiation and activation of monocytes/macrophages on their susceptibility to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Archives of virology 142: 2483–2497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faaberg, KS, Even, C, Palmer, GA and Plagemann, PG (1995a). Disulfide bonds between two envelope proteins of lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus are essential for viral infectivity. Journal of Virology 69: 613–617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faaberg, KS, Palmer, GA, Even, C, Anderson, GW and Plagemann, PG (1995b). Differential glycosylation of the ectodomain of the primary envelope glycoprotein of two strains of lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus that differ in neuropathogenicity. Virus Research 39: 331–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faaberg, KS and Plagemann, PG (1995). The envelope proteins of lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus and their membrane topography. Virology 212: 512–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faaberg, KS and Plagemann, PG (1997). ORF 3 of lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus encodes a soluble, nonstructural, highly glycosylated, and antigenic protein. Virology 227: 245–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, Y, Kim, DY, Ropp, S, Steen, P, Christopher-Hennings, J, Nelson, EA and Rowland, RR (2004). Heterogeneity in Nsp2 of European-like porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses isolated in the United States. Virus Research 100: 229–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, Y, Rowland, RR, Roof, M, Lunney, JK, Christopher-Hennings, J and Nelson, EA (2006). A full-length cDNA infectious clone of North American type 1 porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus: expression of green fluorescent protein in the Nsp2 region. Journal of Virology 80: 11447–11455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, Y, Schneider, P, Zhang, WP, Faaberg, KS, Nelson, EA and Rowland, RR (2007). Diversity and evolution of a newly emerged North American Type 1 porcine arterivirus: analysis of isolates collected between 1999 and 2004. Archives of Virology 152: 1009–1017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernandez, A, Suarez, P, Castro, JM, Tabares, E and Diaz-Guerra, M (2002). Characterization of regions in the GP5 protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus required to induce apoptotic cell death. Virus Research 83: 103–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrin, NH, Fang, Y, Johnson, CR, Murtaugh, MP, Polson, DD, Torremorell, M, Gramer, ML and Nelson, EA (2004). Validation of a blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 11: 503–514.Google ScholarPubMed
Fitter, S, Sincock, PM, Jolliffe, CN and Ashman, LK (1999). Transmembrane 4 superfamily protein CD151 (PETA-3) associates with beta 1 and alpha IIb beta 3 integrins in haemopoietic cell lines and modulates cell-cell adhesion. The Biochemical Journal 338: 61–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forsberg, R (2005). Divergence time of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus sub-types. Molecular Biology and Evolution 11: 2131–2134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forsberg, R, Oleksiewicz, MB, Petersen, AM, Hein, J, Botner, A and Storgaard, T (2001). A molecular clock dates the common ancestor of European-type porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus at more than 10 years before the emergence of disease. Virology 289: 174–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forsberg, R, Storgaard, T, Nielsen, HS, Oleksiewicz, MB, Cordioli, P, Sala, G, Hein, J and Botner, A (2002). The genetic diversity of European type PRRSV is similar to that of the North American type but is geographically skewed within Europe. Virology 299: 38–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gagnon, CA and Dea, S (1998). Differentiation between porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolates by restriction fragment length polymorphism of their ORFs 6 and 7 genes. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 62: 110–116.Google Scholar
Gagnon, CA, Lachapelle, G, Langelier, Y, Massie, B and Dea, S (2003). Adenoviral-expressed GP5 of porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus differs in its cellular maturation from the authentic viral protein but maintains known biological functions. Archives of Virology 148: 951–972.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, ZQ, Guo, X and Yang, HC (2004). Genomic characterization of two Chinese isolates of porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus. Archives of Virology 149: 1341–1351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godeny, EK, Chen, L, Kumar, SN, Methven, SL, Koonin, EV and Brinton, MA (1993). Complete genomic sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV). Virology 194: 585–596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, TL, Lowe, JF, Milburn, SM and Firkins, LD (2003). Quasispecies variation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus during natural infection. Virology 317: 197–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonin, P, Mardassi, H, Gagnon, CA, Massie, B and Dea, S (1998). A nonstructural and antigenic glycoprotein is encoded by ORF3 of the IAF-Klop strain of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Archives of Virology 143: 1927–1940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonin, P, Pirzadeh, B, Gagnon, CA and Dea, S (1999). Seroneutralization of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus correlates with antibody response to the GP5 major envelope glycoprotein. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 11: 20–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorbalenya, AE, Enjuanes, L, Ziebuhr, J and Snijder, EJ (2006). Nidovirales: evolving the largest RNA virus genome. Virus Research 117: 17–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorbalenya, AE, Koonin, EV, Donchenko, AP and Blinov, VM (1989). Coronavirus genome: prediction of putative functional domains in the non-structural polyprotein by comparative amino acid sequence analysis. Nucleic Acids Research 17: 4847–4861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbur, PG, Miller, LD, Paul, PS, Meng, XJ, Huffman, EL and Andrews, JJ (1995). Immunohistochemical identification of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) antigen in the heart and lymphoid system of three-week-old colostrum-deprived pigs. Veterinary Pathology 32: 200–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbur, PG, Paul, PS, Frey, ML, Landgraf, J, Eernisse, K, Meng, XJ, Andrews, JJ, Lum, MA and Rathje, JA (1996a). Comparison of the antigen distribution of two US porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolates with that of the Lelystad virus. Veterinary Pathology 33: 159–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbur, PG, Paul, PS, Meng, XJ, Lum, MA, Andrews, JJ and Rathje, JA (1996b). Comparative pathogenicity of nine US porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) isolates in a five-week-old cesarean-derived, colostrum-deprived pig model. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 8: 11–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Han, J, Liu, G, Wang, Y and Faaberg, KS (2007). Identification of nonessential regions of the nsp2 replicase protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus strain VR-2332 for replication in cell culture. Journal of Virology 81: 9878–9890.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, J, Wang, Y and Faaberg, KS (2006). Complete genome analysis of RFLP 184 isolates of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Virus Research 122: 175–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanada, K, Suzuki, Y, Nakane, T, Hirose, O and Gojobori, T (2005). The origin and evolution of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses. Molecular Biology and Evolution 22: 1024–1031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasegawa, H, Nomura, T, Kishimoto, K, Yanagisawa, K and Fujita, S (1998). SFA-1/PETA-3 (CD151), a member of the transmembrane 4 superfamily, associates preferentially with alpha 5 beta 1 integrin and regulates adhesion of human T cell leukemia virus type 1-infected T cells to fibronectin. Journal of Immunology 161: 3087–3095.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, JS, Halbur, PG, Sirinarumitr, T, Paul, PS, Meng, XJ and Huffman, EL (1997). Temporal and morphologic characterization of the distribution of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) by in situ hybridization in pigs infected with isolates of PRRSV that differ in virulence. Veterinary Pathology 34: 39–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedges, JF, Balasuriya, UB and MacLachlan, NJ (1999). The open reading frame 3 of equine arteritis virus encodes an immunogenic glycosylated, integral membrane protein. Virology 264: 92–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helenius, A (1994). How N-linked oligosaccharides affect glycoprotein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. Molecular Biology of the Cell 5: 253–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helenius, A and Aebi, M (2001). Intracellular functions of N-linked glycans. Science 291: 2364–2369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helenius, A and Aebi, M (2004). Roles of N-linked glycans in the endoplasmic reticulum. Annual Review of Biochemistry 73: 1019–1049.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herold, J, Siddell, S and Ziebuhr, J (1996). Characterization of coronavirus RNA polymerase gene products. Methods in Enzymology 275: 68–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hiscox, JA (2002). The nucleolus: a gateway to viral infection? Archives of Virology 147: 1077–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hiscox, JA (2003). The interaction of animal cytoplasmic RNA viruses with the nucleus to facilitate replication. Virus Research 95: 13–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hiscox, JA (2007). RNA viruses: hijacking the dynamic nucleolus. Nature Reviews Microbiology 5: 119–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hiscox, JA, Wurm, T, Wilson, L, Britton, P, Cavanagh, D and Brooks, G (2001). The coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus nucleoprotein localizes to the nucleolus. Journal of Virology 75: 506–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iqbal, M, Poole, E, Goodbourn, S and McCauley, JW (2004). Role for bovine viral diarrhea virus Erns glycoprotein in the control of activation of beta interferon by double-stranded RNA. Journal of Virology 78: 136–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobasch, G and Rapoport, SM (1996). Hemolytic anemias due to erythrocyte enzyme deficiencies. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 17: 143–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, W, Jiang, P, Li, Y, Tang, J, Wang, X and Ma, S (2006a). Recombinant adenovirus expressing GP5 and M fusion proteins of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus induce both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in mice. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 113: 169–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, W, Jiang, P, Li, Y, Wang, X and Du, Y (2007). Analysis of immunogenicity of minor envelope protein GP3 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in mice. Virus Genes 35: 663–671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, W, Jiang, P, Wang, X, Li, Y and Du, Y (2008). Enhanced immune responses of mice inoculated recombinant adenoviruses expressing GP5 by fusion with GP3 and/or GP4 of PRRS virus. Virus Research 136: 50–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, Y, Xiao, S, Fang, L, Yu, X, Song, Y, Niu, C and Chen, H (2006b). DNA vaccines co-expressing GP5 and M proteins of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) display enhanced immunogenicity. Vaccine 24: 2869–2879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, CR, Yu, W and Murtaugh, MP (2007). Cross-reactive antibody responses to nsp1 and nsp2 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 88: 1184–1195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, WE, Lifson, JD, Lang, SM, Johnson, RP and Desrosiers, RC (2003). Importance of B-cell responses for immunological control of variant strains of simian immunodeficiency virus. Journal of Virology 77: 375–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapur, V, Elam, MR, Pawlovich, TM and Murtaugh, MP (1996). Genetic variation in porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolates in the midwestern United States. Journal of General Virology 277: 1271–1276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, JB, Shafer, AL, Eernisse, KA, Landgraf, JG and Nelson, EA (1995). Antigenic differences between European and American isolates of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) are encoded by the carboxy-terminal portion of viral open reading frame 3. Veterinary Microbiology 44: 65–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keffaber, KK (1989). Reproductive failure of unknown etiology. American Association of Swine Practitioners Newsletter 1: 1–9.Google Scholar
Key, KF, Haqshenas, G, Guenette, DK, Swenson, SL, Toth, TE and Meng, XJ (2001). Genetic variation and phylogenetic analyses of the ORF5 gene of acute porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolates. Veterinary Microbiology 83: 249–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kheyar, A, Jabrane, A, Zhu, C, Cleroux, P, Massie, B, Dea, S and Gagnon, CA (2005). Alternative codon usage of PRRS virus ORF5 gene increases eucaryotic expression of GP(5) glycoprotein and improves immune response in challenged pigs. Vaccine 23: 4016–4022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, DY, Calvert, JG, Chang, KO, Horlen, K, Kerrigan, M and Rowland, RR (2007). Expression and stability of foreign tags inserted into nsp2 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Virus Research 128: 106–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, HS, Kwang, J, Yoon, IJ, Joo, HS and Frey, ML (1993). Enhanced replication of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus in a homogeneous subpopulation of MA-104 cell line. Archives of Virology 133: 477–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, JK, Fahad, AM, Shanmukhappa, K and Kapil, S (2006). Defining the cellular target(s) of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus blocking monoclonal antibody 7G10. Journal of Virology 80: 689–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, TS, Benfield, DA and Rowland, RR (2002). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus-induced cell death exhibits features consistent with a nontypical form of apoptosis. Virus Research 85: 133–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, WI and Yoon, KJ (2008). Molecular assessment of the role of envelope-associated structural proteins in cross neutralization among different PRRS viruses. Virus Genes 37: 380–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimman, TG, Cornelissen, LA, Moormann, RJ, Rebel, JM and Stockhofe-Zurwieden, N (2009). Challenges for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) vaccinology. Vaccine 27: 3704–3718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiss, I, Sami, L, Kecskemeti, S and Hanada, K (2006). Genetic variation of the prevailing porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome viruses occurring on a pig farm upon vaccination. Archives of Virology 151: 2269–2276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreutz, LC and Ackermann, MR (1996). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus enters cells through a low pH-dependent endocytic pathway. Virus Research 42: 137–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroese, MV, Zevenhoven-Dobbe, JC, Bos-de Ruijter, JN, Peeters, BP, Meulenberg, JJ, Cornelissen, LA and Snijder, EJ (2008). The nsp1alpha and nsp1 papain-like autoproteinases are essential for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus RNA synthesis. Journal of General Virology 89: 494–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kwang, J, Kim, HS and Joo, HS (1994). Cloning, expression, and sequence analysis of the ORF4 gene of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus MN-1b. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 6: 293–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kwon, B, Ansari, IH, Pattnaik, AK and Osorio, FA (2008). Identification of virulence determinants of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus through construction of chimeric clones. Virology 380: 371–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Labarque, G, Van Gucht, S, Nauwynck, H, Van Reeth, K and Pensaert, M (2003). Apoptosis in the lungs of pigs infected with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and associations with the production of apoptogenic cytokines. Veterinary Research 34: 249–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laude, H, Godet, M, Bernard, S, Gelfi, J, Duarte, M and Delmas, B (1995). Functional domains in the spike protein of transmissible gastroenteritis virus. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 380: 299–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C, Bachand, A, Murtaugh, MP and Yoo, D (2004). Differential host cell gene expression regulated by the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus GP4 and GP5 glycoproteins. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 102: 189–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C, Calvert, JG, Welch, SK and Yoo, D (2005). A DNA-launched reverse genetics system for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus reveals that homodimerization of the nucleocapsid protein is essential for virus infectivity. Virology 331: 47–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C, Hodgins, D, Calvert, JG, Welch, SK, Jolie, R and Yoo, D (2006a). Mutations within the nuclear localization signal of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein attenuate virus replication. Virology 346: 238–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C, Hodgins, DC, Calvert, JG, Welch, SK, Jolie, R and Yoo, D (2006b). The nuclear localization signal of the PRRS virus nucleocapsid protein viral replication in vitro and antibody response in vivo. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 581: 145–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C and Yoo, D (2005). Cysteine residues of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus small envelope protein are non-essential for virus infectivity. Journal of General Virology 86: 3091–3096.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C and Yoo, D (2006). The small envelope protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus possesses ion channel protein-like properties. Virology 355: 30–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, CM, Chen, CH, Lu, SN, Tung, HD, Chou, WJ, Wang, JH, Chen, TM, Hung, CH, Huang, CC and Chen, WJ (2003). Prevalence and clinical implications of hepatitis B virus genotypes in southern Taiwan. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 38: 95–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, SM and Kleiboeker, SB (2007). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus induces apoptosis through a mitochondria-mediated pathway. Virology 365: 419–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lees-Miller, JP, Helfman, DM and Schroer, TA (1992). A vertebrate actin-related protein is a component of a multisubunit complex involved in microtubule-based vesicle motility. Nature 359: 244–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y, Wang, X, Bo, K, Tang, B, Yang, B, Jiang, W and Jiang, P (2007). Emergence of a highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in the Mid-Eastern region of China. Veterinary Journal 174: 577–584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liao, Y, Lescar, J, Tam, JP and Liu, DX (2004). Expression of SARS-coronavirus envelope protein in Escherichia coli cells alters membrane permeability. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communication 325: 374–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loemba, HD, Mounir, S, Mardassi, H, Archambault, D and Dea, S (1996). Kinetics of humoral immune response to the major structural proteins of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Archives of Virology 141: 751–761.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez-Fuertes, L, Campos, E, Domenech, N, Ezquerra, A, Castro, JM, Dominguez, J and Alonso, F (2000). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus down-modulates TNF-alpha production in infected macrophages. Virus Research 69: 41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loula, T (1991). Mystery pig Disease. Agri-Practice 12: 23–34.Google Scholar
Madan, V, Garcia, MdeJ, Sanz, MA and Carrasco, L (2005). Viroporin activity of murine hepatitis virus E protein. FEBS Letters 579: 3607–3612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madsen, KG, Hansen, CM, Madsen, ES, Strandbygaard, B, Botner, A and Sorensen, KJ (1998). Sequence analysis of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus of the American type collected from Danish swine herds. Archives of Virology 143: 1683–1700.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magar, R, Larochelle, R, Robinson, Y and Dubuc, C (1993). Immunohistochemical detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus using colloidal gold. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 57: 300–304.Google ScholarPubMed
Magar, R, Robinson, Y, Dubuc, C and Larochelle, R (1995). Isolation and experimental oral transmission in pigs of a porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolate. Advences in Experimental Medecine and Biology 380: 139–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mardassi, H, Gonin, P, Gagnon, CA, Massie, B and Dea, S (1998). A subset of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus GP3 glycoprotein is released into the culture medium of cells as a non-virion-associated and membrane-free (soluble) form. Journal of Virology 72: 6298–6306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mardassi, H, Massie, B and Dea, S (1996). Intracellular synthesis, processing, and transport of proteins encoded by ORFs 5 to 7 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Virology 221: 98–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mardassi, H, Mounir, S and Dea, S (1994a). Identification of major differences in the nucleocapsid protein genes of a Quebec strain and European strains of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 75: 681–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mardassi, H, Mounir, S and Dea, S (1995a). Molecular analysis of the ORFs 3 to 7 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, Quebec reference strain. Archives of Virology 140: 1405–1418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mardassi, H, Mounir, S and Dea, S (1995b). Structural gene analysis of a Quebec reference strain or porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Advances in Experimental Medecine and Biology 380: 277–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mardassi, H, Wilson, L, Mounir, S and Dea, S (1994b). Detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and efficient differentiation between Canadian and European strains by reverse transcription and PCR amplification. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 32: 2197–2203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maroto, B, Ramirez, JC and Almendral, JM (2000). Phosphorylation status of the parvovirus minute virus of mice particle: mapping and biological relevance of the major phosphorylation sites. Journal of Virology 74: 10892–10902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mateu, E, Diaz, I, Darwich, L, Casal, J, Martin, M and Pujols, J (2006). Evolution of ORF5 of Spanish porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus strains from 1991 to 2005. Virus Research 115: 198–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNabb, DS and Courtney, RJ (1992). Posttranslational modification and subcellular localization of the p12 capsid protein of herpes simplex virus type 1. Journal of Virology 66: 4839–4847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meng, XJ (2000). Heterogeneity of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus: implications for current vaccine efficacy and future vaccine development. Veterinary Microbiology 74: 309–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meng, XJ, Paul, PS, Halbur, PG and Lum, MA (1995a). Phylogenetic analyses of the putative M (ORF 6) and N (ORF 7) genes of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV): implication for the existence of two genotypes of PRRSV in the U.S.A. and Europe. Archives of Virology 140: 745–755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meng, XJ, Paul, PS, Halbur, PG and Morozov, I (1995b). Sequence comparison of open reading frames 2 to 5 of low and high virulence United States isolates of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 76: 3181–3188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulenberg, JJ (2000). PRRSV, the virus. Veterinary Research 31: 11–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Meulenberg, JJ, de Meijer, EJ and Moormann, RJ (1993a). Subgenomic RNAs of Lelystad virus contain a conserved leader-body junction sequence. Journal of General Virology 74: 1697–1701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulenberg, JJ, Hulst, MM, de Meijer, EJ, Moonen, PL, den Besten, A, de Kluyver, EP, Wensvoort, G and Moormann, RJ (1993b). Lelystad virus, the causative agent of porcine epidemic abortion and respiratory syndrome (PEARS), is related to LDV and EAV. Virology 192: 62–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulenberg, JJ, Petersen-den Besten, A, De Kluyver, EP, Moormann, RJ, Schaaper, WM and Wensvoort, G (1995a). Characterization of proteins encoded by ORFs 2 to 7 of Lelystad virus. Virology 206: 155–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulenberg, JJ, Petersen-den Besten, A, de Kluyver, EP, Moormann, RJ, Schaaper, WM and Wensvoort, G (1995b). Characterization of structural proteins of Lelystad virus. Advances in Experimental Medecine and Biology 380: 271–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulenberg, JJ, Petersen den Besten, A, de Kluyver, E, van Nieuwstadt, A, Wensvoort, G and Moormann, RJ (1997). Molecular characterization of Lelystad virus. Veterinary Microbiology 55: 197–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulenberg, JJ, van Nieuwstadt, AP, van Essen-Zandbergen, A, Bos-de Ruijter, JN, Langeveld, JP and Meloen, RH (1998). Localization and fine mapping of antigenic sites on the nucleocapsid protein N of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus with monoclonal antibodies. Virology 252: 106–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, LC and Fox, JM (2004). Apoptosis and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 102: 131–142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morozov, I, Meng, XJ and Paul, PS (1995). Sequence analysis of open reading frames (ORFs) 2 to 4 of a U.S. isolate of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Archives of Virology 140: 1313–1319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murata, T, Goshima, F, Takakuwa, H and Nishiyama, Y (2002). Excretion of herpes simplex virus type 2 glycoprotein D into the culture medium. Journal of General Virology 83: 2791–2795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murtaugh, MP, Elam, MR and Kakach, LT (1995). Comparison of the structural protein coding sequences of the VR-2332 and Lelystad virus strains of the PRRS virus. Archives of Virology 140: 1451–1460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelsen, CJ, Murtaugh, MP and Faaberg, KS (1999). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus comparison: divergent evolution on two continents. Journal of Virology 73: 270–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, EA, Christopher-Hennings, J, Drew, T, Wensvoort, G, Collins, JE and Benfield, DA (1993). Differentiation of U.S. and European isolates of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by monoclonal antibodies. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 31: 3184–3189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neumann, EJ, Kliebenstein, JB, Johnson, CD, Mabry, JW, Bush, EJ, Seitzinger, AH, Green, AL and Zimmerman, JJ (2005). Assessment of the economic impact of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome on swine production in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 227: 385–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nielsen, HS, Storgaard, T and Oleksiewicz, MB (2000). Analysis of ORF 1 in european porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by long RT-PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. Veterinary Microbiology 76: 221–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oleksiewicz, MB, Botner, A and Normann, P (2001a). Semen from boars infected with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) contains antibodies against structural as well as nonstructural viral proteins. Veterinary Microbiology 81: 109–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oleksiewicz, MB, Botner, A and Normann, P (2002). Porcine B-cells recognize epitopes that are conserved between the structural proteins of American- and European-type porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 83: 1407–1418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oleksiewicz, MB, Botner, A, Toft, P, Grubbe, T, Nielsen, J, Kamstrup, S and Storgaard, T (2000). Emergence of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus deletion mutants: correlation with the porcine antibody response to a hypervariable site in the ORF 3 structural glycoprotein. Virology 267: 135–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oleksiewicz, MB, Botner, A, Toft, P, Normann, P and Storgaard, T (2001b). Epitope mapping porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by phage display: the nsp2 fragment of the replicase polyprotein contains a cluster of B-cell epitopes. Journal of Virology 75: 3277–3290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oleksiewicz, MB, Snijder, EJ and Normann, P (2004). Phage display of the Equine arteritis virus nsp1 ZF domain and examination of its metal interactions. Journal of Virological Methods 119: 159–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oleksiewicz, MB, Stadejek, T, Mackiewicz, Z, Porowski, M and Pejsak, Z (2005). Discriminating between serological responses to European-genotype live vaccine and European-genotype field strains of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) by peptide ELISA. Journal of Virological Methods 129: 134–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osorio, FA, Galeota, JA, Nelson, E, Brodersen, B, Doster, A, Wills, R, Zuckermann, F and Laegreid, WW (2002). Passive transfer of virus-specific antibodies confers protection against reproductive failure induced by a virulent strain of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and establishes sterilizing immunity. Virology 302: 9–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostrowski, M, Galeota, JA, Jar, AM, Platt, KB, Osorio, FA and Lopez, OJ (2002). Identification of neutralizing and nonneutralizing epitopes in the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus GP5 ectodomain. Journal of Virology 76: 4241–4250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patton, JB, Rowland, RR, Yoo, D and Chang, KO (2009). Modulation of CD163 receptor expression and replication of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in porcine macrophages. Virus Research 140: 161–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pei, Y, Hodgins, DC, Lee, C, Calvert, JG, Welch, SK, Jolie, R, Keith, M and Yoo, D (2008). Functional mapping of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus capsid protein nuclear localization signal and its pathogenic association. Virus Research 135: 107–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pirzadeh, B and Dea, S (1997). Monoclonal antibodies to the ORF5 product of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus define linear neutralizing determinants. Journal of General Virology 78: 1867–1873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pirzadeh, B and Dea, S (1998). Immune response in pigs vaccinated with plasmid DNA encoding ORF5 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 79: 989–999.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pirzadeh, B, Gagnon, CA and Dea, S (1998). Genomic and antigenic variations of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus major envelope GP5 glycoprotein. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 62: 170–177.Google ScholarPubMed
Plagemann, PG (2003). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus: origin hypothesis. Emerging infectious Diseases 9: 903–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plagemann, PG (2004). GP5 ectodomain epitope of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, strain Lelystad virus. Virus Research 102: 225–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plagemann, PG (2006). Neutralizing antibody formation in swine infected with seven strains of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus as measured by indirect ELISA with peptides containing the GP5 neutralization epitope. Viral Immunology 19: 285–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plagemann, PG, Rowland, RR and Faaberg, KS (2002). The primary neutralization epitope of porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus strain VR-2332 is located in the middle of the GP5 ectodomain. Archives of Virology 147: 2327–2347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plagemann, PGW (1996). Lactate dehydrogenase elevating virus and related viruses. In: Fields, BN, Knipe, DM and Howley, PM (eds) Field's Virology. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, pp. 1105–1120.Google Scholar
Plana-Duran, J, Bastons, M, Urniza, A, Vayreda, M, Vila, X and Mane, H (1997a). Efficacy of an inactivated vaccine for prevention of reproductive failure induced by porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Veterinary Microbiology 55: 361–370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plana Duran, J, Climent, I, Sarraseca, J, Urniza, A, Cortes, E, Vela, C and Casal, JI (1997b). Baculovirus expression of proteins of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus strain Olot/91. Involvement of ORF3 and ORF5 proteins in protection. Virus Genes 14: 19–29.Google ScholarPubMed
Pol, JM, van Dijk, JE, Wensvoort, G and Terpstra, C (1991). Pathological, ultrastructural, and immunohistochemical changes caused by Lelystad virus in experimentally induced infections of mystery swine disease (synonym: porcine epidemic abortion and respiratory syndrome (PEARS)). The Veterinary Quarterly 13: 137–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qiu, HJ, Tian, ZJ, Tong, GZ, Zhou, YJ, Ni, JQ, Luo, YZ and Cai, XH (2005). Protective immunity induced by a recombinant pseudorabies virus expressing the GP5 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in piglets. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 106: 309–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ran, ZG, Chen, XY, Guo, X, Ge, XN, Yoon, KJ and Yang, HC (2008). Recovery of viable porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus from an infectious clone containing a partial deletion within the Nsp2-encoding region. Archives of Virology 153: 899–907.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reitter, JN and Desrosiers, RC (1998). Identification of replication-competent strains of simian immunodeficiency virus lacking multiple attachment sites for N-linked carbohydrates in variable regions 1 and 2 of the surface envelope protein. Journal of Virology 72: 5399–5407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, MJ, Sarraseca, J, Garcia, J, Sanz, A, Plana-Duran, J and Ignacio Casal, J (1997). Epitope mapping of the nucleocapsid protein of European and North American isolates of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 78: 2269–2278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roossinck, MJ and Siddiqui, A (1987). In vivo phosphorylation and protein analysis of hepatitis B virus core antigen. Journal of Virology 61: 955–961.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ropp, SL, Wees, CE, Fang, Y, Nelson, EA, Rossow, KD, Bien, M, Arndt, B, Preszler, S, Steen, P, Christopher-Hennings, J, Collins, JE, Benfield, DA and Faaberg, KS (2004). Characterization of emerging European-like porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolates in the United States. Journal of Virology 78: 3684–3703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossow, KD, Benfield, DA, Goyal, SM, Nelson, EA, Christopher-Hennings, J and Collins, JE (1996). Chronological immunohistochemical detection and localization of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in gnotobiotic pigs. Veterinary Pathology 33: 551–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossow, KD, Morrison, RB, Goyal, SM, Singh, GS and Collins, JE (1994). Lymph node lesions in neonatal pigs congenitally exposed to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 6: 368–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowland, RR, Kervin, R, Kuckleburg, C, Sperlich, A and Benfield, DA (1999). The localization of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein to the nucleolus of infected cells and identification of a potential nucleolar localization signal sequence. Virus Research 64: 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowland, RR, Schneider, P, Fang, Y, Wootton, S, Yoo, D and Benfield, DA (2003). Peptide domains involved in the localization of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein to the nucleolus. Virology 316: 135–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowland, RR and Yoo, D (2003). Nucleolar-cytoplasmic shuttling of PRRSV nucleocapsid protein: a simple case of molecular mimicry or the complex regulation by nuclear import, nucleolar localization and nuclear export signal sequences. Virus Resarch 95: 23–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seuberlich, T, Tratschin, JD, Thur, B and Hofmann, MA (2002). Nucleocapsid protein-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection and differentiation of antibodies against European and North American porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 9: 1183–1191.Google ScholarPubMed
Shanmukhappa, K, Kim, JK and Kapil, S (2007). Role of CD151, a tetraspanin, in porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection. Virology Journal 4: 62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shen, S, Kwang, J, Liu, W and Liu, DX (2000). Determination of the complete nucleotide sequence of a vaccine strain of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and identification of the Nsp2 gene with a unique insertion. Archives of Virology 145: 871–883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sincock, PM, Fitter, S, Parton, RG, Berndt, MC, Gamble, JR and Ashman, LK (1999). PETA-3/CD151, a member of the transmembrane 4 superfamily, is localised to the plasma membrane and endocytic system of endothelial cells, associates with multiple integrins and modulates cell function. Journal of Cell Science 112: 833–844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sirinarumitr, T, Zhang, Y, Kluge, JP, Halbur, PG and Paul, PS (1998). A pneumo-virulent United States isolate of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus induces apoptosis in bystander cells both in vitro and in vivo. Journal of General Virology 79: 2989–2995.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skehel, JJ, Stevens, DJ, Daniels, RS, Douglas, AR, Knossow, M, Wilson, IA and Wiley, DC (1984). A carbohydrate side chain on hemagglutinins of Hong Kong influenza viruses inhibits recognition by a monoclonal antibody. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 81: 1779–1783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, E, Wassenaar, AL, Den Boon, JA and Spaan, WJ (1995a). Proteolytic processing of the arterivirus replicase. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 380: 443–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, EJ (1998). The arterivirus replicase. The road from RNA to protein(s), and back again. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 440: 97–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snijder, EJ, Dobbe, JC and Spaan, WJ (2003). Heterodimerization of the two major envelope proteins is essential for arterivirus infectivity. Journal of Virology 77: 97–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, EJ and Meulenberg, JJ (1998). The molecular biology of arteriviruses. Journal of General Virology 79: 961–979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, EJ, van Tol, H, Pedersen, KW, Raamsman, MJ and de Vries, AA (1999). Identification of a novel structural protein of arteriviruses. Journal of Virology 73: 6335–6345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, EJ, van Tol, H, Roos, N and Pedersen, KW (2001). Non-structural proteins 2 and 3 interact to modify host cell membranes during the formation of the arterivirus replication complex. Journal of General Virology 82: 985–994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, EJ, Wassenaar, AL and Spaan, WJ (1993). Proteolytic processing of the N-terminal region of the equine arteritis virus replicase. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 342: 227–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, EJ, Wassenaar, AL and Spaan, WJ (1994). Proteolytic processing of the replicase ORF1a protein of equine arteritis virus. Journal of Virology 68: 5755–5764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snijder, EJ, Wassenaar, ALM, Spaan, WJM and Gorbalenya, AE (1995b). The arterivirus nsp2 protease: an unusual cysteine protease with primary structure similarities to both papain-like and chymotrypsin-like proteases. Journal of Biological Chemistry 270: 16671–16676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Song, C, Lu, R, Bienzle, D, Liu, HC and Yoo, D (2009). Interaction of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein with the inhibitor of MyoD family-a domain-containing protein. Biological Chemistry 390: 215–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spilman, MS, Welbon, C, Nelson, E and Dokland, T (2009). Cryo-electron tomography of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus: organization of the nucleocapsid. Journal of General Virology 90: 527–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stadejek, T, Stankevicius, A, Storgaard, T, Oleksiewicz, MB, Belak, S, Drew, TW and Pejsak, Z (2002). Identification of radically different variants of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in Eastern Europe: towards a common ancestor for European and American viruses. Journal of General Virology 83: 1861–1873.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suarez, P, Diaz-Guerra, M, Prieto, C, Esteban, M, Castro, JM, Nieto, A and Ortin, J (1996a). Open reading frame 5 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus as a cause of virus-induced apoptosis. Journal of Virology 70: 2876–2882.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suarez, P, Zardoya, R, Martin, MJ, Prieto, C, Dopazo, J, Solana, A and Castro, JM (1996b). Phylogenetic relationships of European strains of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) inferred from DNA sequences of putative ORF-5 and ORF-7 genes. Virus Research 42: 159–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sur, JH, Cooper, VL, Galeota, JA, Hesse, RA, Doster, AR and Osorio, FA (1996). In vivo detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus RNA by in situ hybridization at different times postinfection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34: 2280–2286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sur, JH, Doster, AR, Christian, JS, Galeota, JA, Wills, RW, Zimmerman, JJ and Osorio, FA (1997). Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus replicates in testicular germ cells, alters spermatogenesis, and induces germ cell death by apoptosis. Journal of Virology 71: 9170–9179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sur, JH, Doster, AR and Osorio, FA (1998). Apoptosis induced in vivo during acute infection by porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Veterinary Pathology 35: 506–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teifke, JP, Dauber, M, Fichtner, D, Lenk, M, Polster, U, Weiland, E and Beyer, J (2001). Detection of European porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in porcine alveolar macrophages by two-colour immunofluorescence and in-situ hybridization-immunohistochemistry double labelling. Journal of Comparative Pathology 124: 238–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tian, K, Yu, X, Zhao, T, Feng, Y, Cao, Z, Wang, C, Hu, Y, Chen, X, Hu, D, Tian, X, Liu, D, Zhang, S, Deng, X, Ding, Y, Yang, L, Zhang, Y, Xiao, H, Qiao, M, Wang, B, Hou, L, Wang, X, Yang, X, Kang, L, Sun, M, Jin, P, Wang, S, Kitamura, Y, Yan, J and Gao, GF (2007). Emergence of fatal PRRSV variants: unparalleled outbreaks of atypical PRRS in China and molecular dissection of the unique hallmark. PLoS ONE 2: e526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tijms, MA, Nedialkova, DD, Zevenhoven-Dobbe, JC, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (2007). Arterivirus subgenomic mRNA synthesis and virion biogenesis depend on the multifunctional nsp1 autoprotease. Journal of Virology 81: 10496–10505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tijms, MA and Snijder, EJ (2003). Equine arteritis virus non-structural protein 1, an essential factor for viral subgenomic mRNA synthesis, interacts with the cellular transcription co-factor p100. Journal of General Virology 84: 2317–2322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tijms, MA, van der Meer, Y and Snijder, EJ (2002). Nuclear localization of non-structural protein 1 and nucleocapsid protein of equine arteritis virus. Journal of General Virology 83: 795–800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tijms, MA, van Dinten, LC, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (2001). A zinc finger-containing papain-like protease couples subgenomic mRNA synthesis to genome translation in a positive-stranded RNA virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98: 1889–1894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uchil, PD, Kumar, AV and Satchidanandam, V (2006). Nuclear localization of flavivirus RNA synthesis in infected cells. Journal of Virology 80: 5451–5464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Aken, D, Benckhuijsen, WE, Drijfhout, JW, Wassenaar, AL, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (2006a). Expression, purification, and in vitro activity of an arterivirus main proteinase. Virus Research 120: 97–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Aken, D, Snijder, EJ and Gorbalenya, AE (2006b). Mutagenesis analysis of the nsp4 main proteinase reveals determinants of arterivirus replicase polyprotein autoprocessing. Journal of Virology 80: 3428–3437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Aken, D, Zevenhoven-Dobbe, J, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (2006c). Proteolytic maturation of replicase polyprotein pp1a by the nsp4 main proteinase is essential for equine arteritis virus replication and includes internal cleavage of nsp7. Journal of General Virology 87: 3473–3482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Dinten, LC, den Boon, JA, Wassenaar, AL, Spaan, WJ and Snijder, EJ (1997). An infectious arterivirus cDNA clone: identification of a replicase point mutation that abolishes discontinuous mRNA transcription. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94: 991–996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Dinten, LC, Rensen, S, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (1999). Proteolytic processing of the open reading frame 1b-encoded part of arterivirus replicase is mediated by nsp4 serine protease and Is essential for virus replication. Journal of Virology 73: 2027–2037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Dinten, LC, Van Tol, H, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (2000). The predicted metal-binding region of the arterivirus helicase protein is invlved in subgenomic mRNA synthesis, genome replication and virion biogenesis. Journal of Virology 74: 5213–5223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Dinten, LC, Wassenaar, ALM, Gorbalenya, AE, Spaan, WJM and Snijder, EJ (1996). Processing of the equine arteritis virus replicase ORF1b protein: identification of cleavage products containing the putative viral polymerase and helicase domains. Journal of Virology 70: 6625–6633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Gorp, H, Van Breedam, W, Delputte, PL and Nauwynck, HJ (2008). Sialoadhesin and CD163 join forces during entry of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of General Virology 89: 2943–2953.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Marle, G, van Dinten, LC, Spaan, WJ, Luytjes, W and Snijder, EJ (1999). Characterization of an equine arteritis virus replicase mutant defective in subgenomic mRNA synthesis. Journal of Virology 73: 5274–5281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Nieuwstadt, AP, Meulenberg, JJ, van Essen-Zanbergen, A, Petersen-den Besten, A, Bende, RJ, Moormann, RJ and Wensvoort, G (1996). Proteins encoded by open reading frames 3 and 4 of the genome of Lelystad virus (Arteriviridae) are structural proteins of the virion. Journal of Virology 70: 4767–4772.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vennema, H, Godeke, GJ, Rossen, JW, Voorhout, WF, Horzinek, MC, Opstelten, DJ and Rottier, PJ (1996). Nucleocapsid-independent assembly of coronavirus-like particles by co-expression of viral envelope protein genes. The EMBO Journal 15: 2020–2028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verheije, MH, Welting, TJ, Jansen, HT, Rottier, PJ and Meulenberg, JJ (2002). Chimeric arteriviruses generated by swapping of the M protein ectodomain rule out a role of this domain in viral targeting. Virology 303: 364–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voicu, IL, Silim, A, Morin, M and Elazhary, MA (1994). Interaction of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus with swine monocytes. The Veterinary Record 134: 422–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vos, MD, Ellis, CA, Elam, C, Ulku, AS, Taylor, BJ and Clark, GJ (2003). RASSF2 is a novel K-Ras-specific effector and potential tumor suppressor. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 278: 28045–28051.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, Y, Liang, Y, Han, J, Burkhart, KM, Vaughn, EM, Roof, MB and Faaberg, KS (2008). Attenuation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus strain MN184 using chimeric construction with vaccine sequence. Virology 371: 418–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wassenaar, AL, Spaan, WJ, Gorbalenya, AE and Snijder, EJ (1997). Alternative proteolytic processing of the arterivirus replicase ORF1a polyprotein: evidence that NSP2 acts as a cofactor for the NSP4 serine protease. Journal of Virology 71: 9313–9322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wei, X, Decker, JM, Wang, S, Hui, H, Kappes, JC, Wu, X, Salazar-Gonzalez, JF, Salazar, MG, Kilby, JM, Saag, MS, Komarova, NL, Nowak, MA, Hahn, BH, Kwong, PD and Shaw, GM (2003). Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1. Nature 42: 307–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weidman, MK, Sharma, R, Raychaudhuri, S, Kundu, P, Tsai, W and Dasgupta, A (2003). The interaction of cytoplasmic RNA viruses with the nucleus. Virus Research 95: 75–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiland, E, Wieczorek-Krohmer, M, Kohl, D, Conzelmann, KK and Weiland, F (1999). Monoclonal antibodies to the GP5 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus are more effective in virus neutralization than monoclonal antibodies to the GP4. Veterinary Microbiology 66: 171–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, SK, Jolie, R, Pearce, DS, Koertje, WD, Fuog, E, Shields, SL, Yoo, D and Calvert, JG (2004). Construction and evaluation of genetically engineered replication-defective porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus vaccine candidates. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 102: 277–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wensvoort, G, Terpstra, C, Pol, JMA, ter Laak, EA, Bloemraad, M, de Kluyver, EP, Kragten, C, van Buiten, L, den Besten, A, Wagenaar, F, Broekhuijsen, JM, Moonen, PLJM, Zetstra, T, de Boer, EA, Tibben, HJ, de Jong, MF, van't Veld, P, Groenland, GJR, van Genep, JA, Voets, MT, Verheijden, JHM and Braamskamp, J (1991). Mystery swine disease in The Netherlands: the isolation of Lelystad virus. The Veterinary Quarterly 13: 121–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wieringa, R, de Vries, AA, Raamsman, MJ and Rottier, PJ (2002). Characterization of two new structural glycoproteins, GP(3) and GP(4), of equine arteritis virus. Journal of Virology 76: 10829–10840.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wieringa, R, de Vries, AA and Rottier, PJ (2003). Formation of disulfide-linked complexes between the three minor envelope glycoproteins (GP2b, GP3, and GP4) of equine arteritis virus. Journal of Virology 77: 6216–6226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wieringa, R, de Vries, AA, van der Meulen, J, Godeke, GJ, Onderwater, JJ, van Tol, H, Koerten, HK, Mommaas, AM, Snijder, EJ and Rottier, PJ (2004). Structural protein requirements in equine arteritis virus assembly. Journal of Virology 78: 13019–13027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, L, McKinlay, C, Gage, P and Ewart, G (2004). SARS coronavirus E protein forms cation-selective ion channels. Virology 330: 322–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wissink, EH, Kroese, MV, Maneschijn-Bonsing, JG, Meulenberg, JJ, van Rijn, PA, Rijsewijk, FA and Rottier, PJ (2004). Significance of the oligosaccharides of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus glycoproteins GP2a and GP5 for infectious virus production. Journal of General Virology 85: 3715–3723.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wissink, EH, Kroese, MV, van Wijk, HA, Rijsewijk, FA, Meulenberg, JJ and Rottier, PJ (2005). Envelope protein requirements for the assembly of infectious virions of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of Virology 79: 12495–12506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wissink, EH, van Wijk, HA, Kroese, MV, Weiland, E, Meulenberg, JJ, Rottier, PJ and van Rijn, PA (2003). The major envelope protein, GP5, of a European porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus contains a neutralization epitope in its N-terminal ectodomain. Journal of General Virology 84: 1535–1543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wootton, S, Koljesar, G, Yang, L, Yoon, KJ and Yoo, D (2001). Antigenic importance of the carboxy-terminal beta-strand of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 8: 598–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wootton, S, Yoo, D and Rogan, D (2000). Full-length sequence of a Canadian porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) isolate. Archives of Virology 145: 2297–2323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wootton, SK, Nelson, EA and Yoo, D (1998). Antigenic structure of the nucleocapsid protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 5: 773–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wootton, SK, Rowland, RR and Yoo, D (2002). Phosphorylation of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein. Journal of Virology 76: 10569–10576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wootton, SK and Yoo, D (2003). Homo-oligomerization of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein and the role of disulfide linkages. Journal of Virology 77: 4546–4557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, WH, Fang, Y, Farwell, R, Steffen-Bien, M, Rowland, RR, Christopher-Hennings, J and Nelson, EA (2001). A 10-kDa structural protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus encoded by orf2b. Virology 287: 183–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, WH, Fang, Y, Rowland, RR, Lawson, SR, Christopher-Hennings, J, Yoon, KJ and Nelson, EA (2005). The 2b protein as a minor structural component of PRRSV. Virus Research 114: 177–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wurm, T, Chen, H, Hodgson, T, Britton, P, Brooks, G and Hiscox, JA (2001). Localization to the nucleolus is a common feature of coronavirus nucleoproteins, and the protein may disrupt host cell division. Journal of Virology 75: 9345–9356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xue, Q, Zhao, YG, Zhou, YJ, Qiu, HJ, Wang, YF, Wu, DL, Tian, ZJ and Tong, GZ (2004). Immune responses of swine following DNA immunization with plasmids encoding porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus ORFs 5 and 7, and porcine IL-2 and IFNgamma. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 102: 291–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, L, Frey, ML, Yoon, KJ, Zimmerman, JJ and Platt, KB (2000). Categorization of North American porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses: epitopic profiles of the N, M, GP5 and GP3 proteins and susceptibility to neutralization. Archives of Virology 145: 1599–1619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, SX, Kwang, J and Laegreid, W (1998). Comparative sequence analysis of open reading frames 2 to 7 of the modified live vaccine virus and other North American isolates of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Archives of Virology 143: 601–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, Y and Zhang, J (1999). An experimental study on the endurance of immunologic memory of intradermal micro-injection with rabies vaccine and boosting immune effect. Journal of Epidemiology 9: 209–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoo, BJ, Spaete, RR, Geballe, AP, Selby, M, Houghton, M and Han, JH (1992). 5′ end-dependent translation initiation of hepatitis C viral RNA and the presence of putative positive and negative translational control elements within the 5′ untranslated region. Virology 191: 889–899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoo, D, Wootton, SK, Li, G, Song, C and Rowland, RR (2003). Colocalization and interaction of the porcine arterivirus nucleocapsid protein with the small nucleolar RNA-associated protein fibrillarin. Journal of Virology 77: 12173–12183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoon, KJ, Zimmerman, JJ, Swenson, SL, McGinley, MJ, Eernisse, KA, Brevik, A, Rhinehart, LL, Frey, ML, Hill, HT and Platt, KB (1995). Characterization of the humoral immune response to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus infection. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 7: 305–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshii, M, Kaku, Y, Murakami, Y, Shimizu, M, Kato, K and Ikeda, H (2005). Genetic variation and geographic distribution of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in Japan. Archives of Virology 150: 2313–2324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshii, M, Okinaga, T, Miyazaki, A, Kato, K, Ikeda, H and Tsunemitsu, H (2008). Genetic polymorphism of the nsp2 gene in North American type porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Archives of Virology 153: 1323–1334.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yuan, S, Murtaugh, MP and Faaberg, KS (2000). Heteroclite subgenomic RNAs are produced in porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection. Virology 275: 158–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yuan, S, Murtaugh, MP, Schumann, FA, Mickelson, D and Faaberg, KS (2004). Characterization of heteroclite subgenomic RNAs associated with PRRSV infection. Virus Research 105: 75–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeegers, JJ, Van der Zeijst, BA and Horzinek, MC (1976). The structural proteins of equine arteritis virus. Virology 73: 200–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, Y, Sharma, RD and Paul, PS (1998). Monoclonal antibodies against conformationally dependent epitopes on porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Veterinary Microbiology 63: 125–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, L, Zhang, J, Zeng, J, Yin, S, Li, Y, Zheng, L, Guo, X, Ge, X and Yang, H (2009). The 30-amino-acid deletion in the Nsp2 of highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus emerging in China is not related to its virulence. Journal of Virology 83: 5156–5167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, YJ, An, TQ, He, YX, Liu, JX, Qiu, HJ, Wang, YF and Tong, G (2006). Antigenic structure analysis of glycosylated protein 3 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Virus Research 118: 98–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, YJ, Hao, XF, Tian, ZJ, Tong, GZ, Yoo, D, An, TQ, Zhou, T, Li, GX, Qiu, HJ, Wei, TC and Yuan, XF (2008). Highly virulent porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus emerged in China. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 55: 152–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziebuhr, J, Snijder, EJ and Gorbalenya, AE (2000). Virus-encoded proteinases and proteolytic processing in the Nidovirales. Journal of General Virology 81: 853–879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed