Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T07:01:39.193Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Livestock pathology in the central African region: some epidemiological considerations and control strategies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 January 2010

Daniel Ndzingu Awa  and
Mbunkah Daniel Achukwi
Daniel Ndzingu Awa*
Affiliation:
Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), P.O. Box 1073, Garoua, Cameroon
Mbunkah Daniel Achukwi
Affiliation:
IRAD Wakwa, Veterinary Research Laboratory, Ngaoundere, Cameroon
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Disease consistently features among the major constraints of livestock production in the central African region, orchestrating important economic losses. This article reviews livestock diseases of economic importance, including foot-and-mouth disease, trypanosomosis and dermatophilosis in cattle, peste des petits ruminants and gastrointestinal helminthosis in sheep and goats, and Newcastle disease in poultry. Some aspects of epidemiology such as pathogen identification, prevalence and risk factors are examined in the light of research findings in the region. Control tools such as vaccines, chemotherapeutic or prophylactic agents, and protocols developed for their efficient use are also reviewed. Constraints to the effective use of these tools have been identified as mostly due to institutional insufficiencies and measures for improvement have been proposed. These include the promotion of private professional veterinary services endowed with greater responsibility in animal health care, creation and promotion of community-based animal health care units in areas of marginal professional coverage, and adoption of a regional approach to the control of diseases of economic importance.

Keywords

animal healthepidemiologydisease controllivestockcentral Africa
Type
Review Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , December 2010 , pp. 235 - 244
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel, M, Bekele, T, Fikadu, G and Wogene, T (1992). Losses from foot-and-mouth disease in a mixed farming area of eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 24: 145–156.Google Scholar
Achukwi, MD (2004). Rapport Final D'Activities: Laboratoire de recherches Veterinaries de Wakwa, Ngaoundere Cameroun. Laboratoire Associe Francophone (LAF 309), Agence universitaire de la Francophonie-AUF. p. 45.Google Scholar
Achukwi, MD and Musongong, GA (2009). Trypanosomosis in the Doayo/Namchi (Bos taurus) and zebu White Fulani (Bos indicus) cattle in Faro Division, North Cameroon. Journal of Applied Biosciences 15: 807–814.Google Scholar
Achukwi, MD and Saliki, JT (1990). Streptothricose bovine à Wakwa: recherches sur un traitement valable et ses implications économiques. In: Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Cameroon Bioscience Association, pp. 95–97.Google Scholar
Achukwi, MD, Tanya, VN, Hill, EW, Bradley, DG, Meghen, C, Sauveroche, B, Banser, JT and Ndoki, JN (1997). Susceptibility of the Namchi and Kapsiki cattle of Cameroon to trypanosome infection. Tropical Animal Health and Production 29: 219–226.Google Scholar
Achukwi, MD, Berthier, D, Chantal, I and Maillard, JC (2006). Six new Bola-DQB alleles sequenced from Doayo/Namchi (Bos taurus) and Akou/White Fulani (Bos indicus) cattle. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 5: 426–429.Google Scholar
Achukwi, MD, Harnett, W, Enyong, P and Renz, A (2007). Successful vaccination against Onchocerca ochengi infestation in cattle using live Onchocerca volvulus infective larvae. Parasite Immunology 29: 113–116.Google Scholar
Achukwi, MD, Ibeagha-Awemu, EM, Musongong, GA and Erhardt, G (2009). Doayo (Namchi) Bos taurus cattle with low zebu attributes are trypanotolerant under natural vector challenge. Online Journal of Veterinary Research 13: 94–105.Google Scholar
Ahuya, CO, Okeyo, AM, Mwangi-Njuru, and Peacock, C (2005). Development challenges and opportunities in the goat industry: the Kenyan experience. Small Ruminant Research 60: 197–206.Google Scholar
Alabi, RA and Isah, AO (2002). Poultry production constraints: the case of Esan West LGA of Edo State, Nigeria. African Journal of Livestock Extension 1: 58–61.Google Scholar
Anene, BM, Onah, DN and Nawa, Y (2001). Drug resistance in pathogenic African trypanosomes: what hopes for the future? Veterinary Parasitology 96: 83–100.Google Scholar
Assefa, E and Abebe, G (2001). Drug-resistant Trypanosoma congolense in naturally infected donkeys in north Omo zone, south Ethiopia. Veterinary Parasitology 99: 261–271.Google Scholar
Awa, DN and Ndamkou, CN (2006). Response of Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma congolense in zebu cattle in North Cameroon to prophylactic treatment with two formulations of Isometamidium. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 76: 90–96.Google Scholar
Awa, DN and Ngo Tama, AC (1997). Mortalities in small ruminants and poultry in Mayo Louti Division. Technical Document, PNVRA-IRAD, North Province, Cameroon, 12 pp.Google Scholar
Awa, DN and Njoya, A (1997). Monitoring and control of helminthosis in local sheep in Northern Cameroon. In: Proceedings of the 5th Annual Conference of the Cameroon Bioscience Association, 17–19 December 1997, Yaounde.Google Scholar
Awa, DN, Njoya, A, Ngo Tama, AC and Ekue, F (1999). The health status of pigs in north Cameroon. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 52: 93–98.Google Scholar
Awa, DN, Njoya, A and Ngo Tama, AC (2000). Economics of prophylaxis against peste des petits ruminants and gastrointestinal helminthosis in small ruminants in north Cameroon. Tropical Animal Health and Production 32: 391–403.Google Scholar
Awa, DN, Ngagnou, A, Tefiang, E, Yaya, D and Njoya, A (2002). Post vaccination and colostral peste des petits ruminants antibody dynamics in research flocks of Kirdi goats and Foulbe sheep of north Cameroon. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 55: 265–271.Google Scholar
Awa, DN, Njoya, A, Mopaté, YL, Ndomadji, JA, Onana, J, Awa, AA, Ngo Tama, AC, Djoumessi, M, Loko, B, Bechir, AB, Delafosse, A and Maho, A (2004). Contraintes, opportunités et évolution des systèmes d'élevage en zone semi-aride des savanes d'Afrique centrale. Cahiers Agricultures 13: 331–340.Google Scholar
Awa, DN, Achukwi, MD, Niba, E, Manchang, TK, Wade, A, Asongwed-Awa, A and Dongmo, AL (2006). Animal health in the traditional livestock systems of North Cameroon: risk factors, health management and constraints. Working Document, IRAD/PRASAC, Garoua, 12 pp.Google Scholar
Awa, DN, Maho, A and Mal Mal, E (2008a). Rapport Scientifique Régionale du Programme 2.5 – Gestion des Pathologies Animales, présenté au Comité Scientifique Consultatif d'ARDESAC, du 21 au 26 Avril 2008 à Garoua, Cameroun, 32 pp.Google Scholar
Awa, DN, Ngo Tama, AC, Njoya, A, Jumbo, SD and Mefomdjo, P (2008b). The potential role of an inactivated thermostable vaccine in the control of Newcastle disease in traditional free-roaming poultry in Central and West Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production 41: 285–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Awa, DN, Niba, E, Maho, A, Manchang, TK, Achukwi, MD, Abderkerim, B, Weimine, K, Assanamou, S and Assandi, O (2009). Intensity and economic impact of bovine dermatophilosis in some areas of the central African sub region. In: Communication présentée au Colloque d'ARDESAC du 21–24 avril 2009 à Garoua – Cameroun.Google Scholar
Bayemi, PH, Bryant, MJ, Pingpoh, D, Imele, H, Mbanya, J, Tanya, V, Cavestany, D, Awoh, J, Ngoucheme, A, Sali, D, Ekoue, F, Njakoi, H and Webb, EC (2005). Participatory rural appraisal of dairy farms in the North West of Cameroon. Livestock Research for Rural Development 17: 1–21.Google Scholar
Black, SJ, Seed, JR and Murphy, NB (2001). Innate and acquired resistance to African trypanosomosis. Journal of Parasitology 87: 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouyer, J, Stachurski, F, Kaboré, I, Bauer, B and Lancelot, R (2007). Tsetse control in cattle from pyrethroid footbaths. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 78: 223–238.Google Scholar
Bronsvoort, BM, De, C, Nfon, C, Hamman, SM, Tanya, VN, Kitching, RP and Morgan, KL (2004a). Risk factors for herdsman-reported foot-and-mouth disease in the Adamawa Province of Cameroon. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 66: 127–139.Google Scholar
Bronsvoort, BM, De, C, Nfon, C, Hamman, SM, Tanya, VN, Kitching, RP and Morgan, KL (2004b). Molecular epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease viruses in the Adamawa Province of Cameroon. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42: 2186–2196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camus, E and Barre, N (1995). Vector situation of tick-borne diseases in the Caribbean islands. Veterinary Parasitology 57: 167–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chitikobo, P, Kusina, N, Hamudikuwanda, H and Nyoni, O (2004). A monitoring study on the prevalence of dermatophilosis and parafilariosis in cattle in a smallholder semi-arid farming area in Zimbabwe. Tropical Animal Health and Production 36: 207–215.Google Scholar
CZR (Centre for Zootechnical Research, Wakwa) (1988). Annual Report.Google Scholar
de Leeuw, PN, Mcdermott, JJ and Lebbie, SHB (1995). Monitoring of livestock health and production in sub-Saharan Africa. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 25: 195–212.Google Scholar
Diallo, A, Taylor, WP, Lefevre, PC and Provost, A (1989). Atténuation d'une souche de virus de la peste des petits ruminants: candidat pour un vaccin homologue vivant. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 42: 311–319.Google Scholar
Ekue, FN and Tanya, VN (1985). The 1982 African swine fever epizootic in Cameroon. Revue Science et Technique, Série Science Zootechique 1: 65–70.Google Scholar
Ekue, FN and Wilkinson, PJ (1999a). Analysis of the genomes of African swine fever virus isolates from Cameroon. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 52: 195–201.Google Scholar
Ekue, FN and Wilkinson, PJ (1999b). The effect of passage in pigs and pig bone marrow cultures on the genome of the Cameroon isolate (CAM/82) of ASF virus. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 52: 209–213.Google Scholar
Ekue, FN and Wilkinson, PJ (1999c). The pathogenicity of two groups of African swine fever virus isolates from Cameroon in domestic pigs. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 52: 202–208.Google Scholar
Ekue, FN and Wilkinson, PJ (2000). Comparison of genomes of African swine fever virus isolates from Cameroon, other African countries and Europe. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 53: 229–236.Google Scholar
Ekue, FN, Tanya, VN and Ndi, C (1990). Foot-and-mouth disease in Cameroon. Short communication. Tropical Animal Health and Production 22: 34–36.Google Scholar
Faibra, FT (1989). Rapport d'enquête épidémiologique et collecte des souches de Dermatophilus conolensis. Programme de Dermatophilose, Laboratoire de Fracha-N'Djamena, 16 p.Google Scholar
Freeman, AR, Meghen, CM, Machugh, DE, Loftus, RT, Achukwi, MD, Bado, A, Sauveroche, B and Bradley, DG (2004). Admixture and diversity in West African cattle populations. Molecular Ecology 13: 3477–3487.Google Scholar
Gilbert, J, Nfon, CK, Makepeace, BL, Njongmeta, LM, Hastings, IM, Pfarr, KM, Renz, A, Tanya, VN and Trees, AJ (2005). Antibiotic chemotherapy of onchocerciasis: in a bovine model, killing of adult parasites requires a sustained depletion of endosymbiotic bacteria (Wolbachia species). The Journal of Infectious Diseases 192: 1483–1493.Google Scholar
Hamat Mal-Mal, E, Awa, DN, Maho, A, Enam, J, Achukwi, MD, Manchang, TK, Bah, SG, Niba, E and Koumanda, KAF (2009). Fonctionnement et difficultés de la filière des intrants et services vétérinaires dans les savanes d'Afrique Centrale. In: Communication présentée au Colloque d'ARDESAC du 21–24 avril 2009 à Garoua – Cameroun.Google Scholar
Hargrove, JW, Omolo, S, Msalilwa, JSI and Fox, B (2000). Insecticide-treated cattle for tsetse control: the power and the problems. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 14: 123–130.Google Scholar
Hermeso de Mendosa, J, Arenas, A, Rey, J, Alonso, JM, Gil, MC, Naranjo, G and Hermeso de Mendosa, M (1994). In vitro studies of Dermatophilus congonlensis antimicrobial susceptibility by determining minimal inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations. British Veterinary Journal 150: 189–196.Google Scholar
Hüntter, K, Leidl, K, Pfeiffer, DU, Kasambara, D and Jere, FBD (2001). The effect of community-based animal health service programme on livestock mortality, off-take and selected husbandry applications: a field study in Malawi. Livestock Production Science 72: 263–278.Google Scholar
Idriss, OA, Bidjeh, K, Ganda, K, Diguimbaye, A and Maurice, Y (1989). Sensibilité des races ovines et caprines tchadiennes au virus de la peste des petits ruminants. In: Wilson, RT and Azeb, M (eds) Proceedings of the Conference on African Small Ruminant Research and Development, 8–25 January 1989 at Bamenda, Cameroon.Google Scholar
ILRAD 1994. Trypanosomiasis, International Laboratory for Research in Animal Diseases Reports. Nairobi: ILRAD, pp. 21–29.Google Scholar
James, A (2005). The state of veterinary epidemiology and economics. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 67: 91–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, AMQ (2000). Picornaviridae (Seventh Report of the International Committee for the Taxonomy of Viruses). In: Van Regenmortel, MHV, Fauquet, CM and Bishop, DHL (eds) Virus Taxonomy: Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses. New York: Academic Press, pp. 657–673.Google Scholar
Maho, A, Ndeledje, N, Mopaté, YL and Kana, G (2004). La maladie de Newcastle au sud du Tchad: périodes de pic épidémique et impact de la vaccination. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'Office International d'Epizootie 23: 777–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maho, A, Awa, DN and Mal Mal, E (2009). Maladie de Newcastle en aviculture traditionnelle dans les Savanes d'Afrique centrale: Epidémie, stratégie de lutte et impact socio-économique. In: Communication Présentée au Colloque d'ARDESAC du 21–24 avril 2009 à Garoua – Cameroun.Google Scholar
Martrenchar, A, Zoyem, N, Ngangnou, A, Bouchel, D, Ngo Tama, AC and Njoya, A (1995). Etude des principaux agents infectieux intervenant dans l'étiologie des pneumopathies des petits ruminants au Nord-Cameroun. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 48: 133–137.Google Scholar
Martrenchar, A, Bouchel, D, Zoyem, N, Thiaucourt, F and Lambert, M (1997a). Risk factors responsible for the appearance of individual clinical signs in small ruminants in northern Cameroon. Small Ruminant Research 26: 45–52.Google Scholar
Martrenchar, A, Zoyem, N and Diallo, A (1997b). Experimental study of a mixed vaccine against ‘peste des petits rumunants’ and capripox infection in goats in northern Cameroon. Small Ruminant Research 26: 39–44.Google Scholar
Martrenchar, A, Zoyem, N, Njoya, A, Ngo Tama, AC, Bouchel, D and Diallo, A (1999). Field study of a homologous vaccine against ‘peste des petits rumunants’ in northern Cameroon. Small Ruminant Research 31: 277–280.Google Scholar
Mbah, DA (1982). Mortality due to rickettsia, trypanosomiasis, piroplasmosis and streptothricosis among six genetic groups of cattle at Wakwa. Revue Science et Technique Série Zootechnique 2: 81–88.Google Scholar
Miller, GY, McNamara, PE and Singer, RS (2006). Stakeholder position paper: economist's perspectives on antibiotic use in animals. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 73: 163–168.Google Scholar
Molia, S, Frebling, M, Vachiéry, N, Pinarello, V, Petitclerc, M, Rousteau, A, Martinez, D and Lefrançois, T (2008). Amblyomma variegatum in cattle in Marie Galante, French Antilles: prevalence, control measures, and infection by Ehrlichia ruminantium. Veterinary Parasitology 153: 338–346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mopaté, LY and Idriss, A (2001). Etat de l'aviculture familiale au Tchad et perspectives de son développement. Etude et Recherches Saheliennes 6–7: 7–15.Google Scholar
Mopaté, LY and Maho, A (2005). Caractérisation et productivité des élevages familiaux des poulets villageois au Sud du Tchad. Revue Africaine de Santé et de Productions Animales 3: 41–46.Google Scholar
Mopaté, LY, Koussou, MO, Nguertoum, EA, Ngo Tama, AC, Lakouetene, T, Awa, DN, Bembide, C, Amara, G, Namfei, R and Hamat Mal Mal, E (2009). Conduite d'élevage et prévalence de la cysticercose (cysticercus cellulosae) porcine en zones urbaine et périurbaine des villes de Garoua, Pala et Bangui. In: Communication Présentée au Colloque d'ARDESAC du 21–24 avril 2009 à Garoua – Cameroun.Google Scholar
Mugunieri, GL, Irungu, P and Omiti, JM (2004). Performance of community-based animal health workers in the delivery of livestock health services. Tropical Animal Health and Production 36: 523–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ndamukong, KJN, Sewell, MMH and Asanji, MF (1986). Parasitic gastro-enteritis in sheep and goats in Bamenda, N.W. Province of Cameroon. Tropical Animal Health and Production 2: 101–116.Google Scholar
Ndamukong, KJN, Sewell, MMH and Asanji, MF (1989). Disease and mortality in small ruminants in the North West Province of Cameroon. Tropical Animal Health and Production 21: 191–196.Google Scholar
Njoya, A, Awa, DN and Bouchel, D (1997). Influence de la complémentation et de la prophylaxie sur la viabilité des ovin Foulbé au Nord-Cameroun. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 50: 227–233.Google Scholar
Njongmeta, NL, Tanya, VN and Keng, A (2001). Enquête sur les sérotypes de Pasteurella multocida dans les zones de savane du Cameroun. Revue d'Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 54: 187–189.Google Scholar
Njoya, A, Awa, DN, Ngo, AC, Cardinale, E and Mamoudou, A (2005a). Evaluation d'une stratégie de contrôle de la mortalité des petits ruminants en zone sahélienne du Nord-Cameroun. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 58: 89–94.Google Scholar
Njoya, A, Awa, DN and Chupamom, J (2005b). The effect of a strategic supplementation and prophylaxis on the reproductive performance of primiparous Fulbe ewes in the semi-arid zone of Cameroon. Small Ruminant Research 56: 21–29.Google Scholar
Nzietchueng, S, Ndzingu, A, Vial, L, Pouillot, R, Goutard, F and Roger, F (2007). Introduction and dissemination of Newcastle disease virus in north Cameroon: models and qualitative risk analysis. In: Proceedings of the 12th Conference of the Association of Institutions for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Montpellier, France, 20–22 August 2007, CIRAD, Montpellier.Google Scholar
Reiss, D, Cardinale, E, N'chare, and Labonne, M (1999). Des éleveurs face aux glossines au Nord-Cameroun. Une méthode de lutte adaptée à des pratiques et présentations pastorales. In: Boutrais, CBJ (ed) L'homme et l'Animal dans le Bassin du lac Tchad. Paris: IRD Editions, pp. 575–598.Google Scholar
Renz, A, Trees, AJ, Achukwi, MD, Edwards, G and Wahl, G (1995). Evaluation of suramin, ivermectin and CGP 20376 in a new macrofilaricidal drug screen, Onchocerca ochengi in African cattle. Tropical Medical Parasitology 46: 31–37.Google Scholar
Roeder, PL, Abraham, G, Kenfe, G and Barret, T (1994). Peste des petits ruminants in Ethiopian goats. Tropical Animal Health and Production 26: 69–73.Google Scholar
Rowlands, GJ, Mulatu, W, Leal, SGA, Nagda, SM and D'ieteren, GDM (1999). Estimating the effect of tsetse control on livestock productivity – a case study in southwest Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 31: 279–294.Google Scholar
Saliki, JT, Ekue, FN, Tanya, VN and Achukwi, MD (1989). Disease as a major constraint on small ruminant production in Cameroon: the example of Peste des Petits ruminants (P.P.R.). In: Wilson, RT and Azeb, M (eds) African Small Ruminant Research and Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: ILCA.Google Scholar
Schillhorn van Veen, TW (2005). Sense or nonsense? Traditional methods of animal parasitic disease control. Veterinary Parasitology 71: 177–194.Google Scholar
Sow, A, Sidibe, I, Kamuanga, M, Maillard, J-C and Et Ly, C (2005). Epidemiologie et importance socio-économique de la dermatophilose dans les élevages bovins du pays lobi (sud-ouest du Burkina Faso). Revue Africaine de Santé et de Production Animales 3: 15–22.Google Scholar
Stachurski, F (1993). Variability of cattle infestation by Amblyomma variegatum and its possible utilisation for tick control. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 46: 341–348.Google Scholar
Stachurski, F, Bouyer, J and Bouyer, F (2005). Lutte contre les ectoparasites des bovins par pédiluve: méthode innovante utilisée en zone périurbaine subhumide du Burkina Faso. Revue d'Elevage et de Médicine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 58: 221–228.Google Scholar
Stevenson, P, Okech, G, Mwendia, C and Sones, KR (2000). Comparison of the isometamidium-based trypanocidal drugs Samorin® and Veridium® in cattle under field conditions at Nguruman, Kenya. Acta Tropica 77: 195–201.Google Scholar
Swatson, HK, Nsahlai, IV and Byebwa, B (2001). The status of small holder poultry production in the Alfred district of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa: priorities for intervention. In: Proceedings of the 10th Conference of the Association of Institutions for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Copenhagen, Denmark.Google Scholar
Tanya, VN (1985). Foot-and-mouth disease at Wakwa Ngaoundéré, Cameroon: a preliminary study of its epizootiology. Science and Technology Review 1: 73–77.Google Scholar
Tanya, VN and Salah, JNS (1985). Observations épizootiques sur la streptothricose cutané bovine à Wakwa, Ngaoundéré-Cameroun. Revue Science et Technique, Série Science Zootechnique 1: 61–66.Google Scholar
Tanya, VN, Ndi, C, Saliki, JT and Ekue, FN (1987). Characteristics of foot-and-mouth disease type A virus isolate from Wakwa, Cameroon. Revue Science et Technique, Série Science Agronomique 3: 119–123.Google Scholar
Tchakouté, VL, Wood, M, Bronsvoort, BM, Tanya, VN, Renz, A and Trees, AJ (1999). Chemoprophylaxis of Onchocerca infections: in a controlled, prospective study ivermectin prevents calves becoming infected with O. ochengi. Parasitology 118: 195–199.Google Scholar
Thys, E, Oueadraogo, M, Speybroeck, N and Geerts, S (2005). Socio-economic determinants of urban household livestock keeping in semi-arid Western Africa. Journal of Arid Environments 63: 475–496.Google Scholar
Van den Bossche, P and Chigoma, D (2001). Planning for the control of bovine trypanosomosis in Southern Africa: a multidisciplinary approach livestock community and environment. In: Proceedings of the 10th Conference of the Association of Institutions for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Copenhagen, Denmark.Google Scholar
Woldemeskel, M and Taye, G (2002). Prevalence of bovine dermatophilosis in a tropical highland region of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 34: 189–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar