Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T20:00:39.785Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ethnoveterinary plant preparations as livestock dewormers: practices, popular beliefs, pitfalls and prospects for the future

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2007

John B. Githiori ,
Johan Höglund  and
Peter J. Waller
John B. Githiori*
Affiliation:
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), PO Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Department of Parasitology (SWEPAR), National Veterinary Institute and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala SE-751 89, Sweden
Johan Höglund
Affiliation:
Department of Parasitology (SWEPAR), National Veterinary Institute and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala SE-751 89, Sweden
Peter J. Waller
Affiliation:
Department of Parasitology (SWEPAR), National Veterinary Institute and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala SE-751 89, Sweden
*
*Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Ethnomedicine is an integral part of traditional medical practices in many countries of the developing world. A large proportion of the population uses this form of treatment for primary health care and for the treatment of ailments in their livestock. Livestock is a major asset for resource-poor smallholder farmers and pastoralists throughout the world and internal parasites are recognized by these communities as having an impact on livestock health. Parasitic infections are among those infections that traditional healers confidently treat and against which an enormous variety of remedies exist. Many of these are based on the use of plant preparations. Although various methods have been used for the validation of traditional phytomedical preparations, there is a lack of standardization of these procedures. The present study is aimed at providing an overview of ethnoveterinary deworming preparations, the various methods that have been used in their validation and the future prospects for their use against helminth parasites of ruminant livestock in developing countries, with an emphasis on nematode parasites. Recommendations are made on the procedures that should be followed to conduct in vivo and in vitro assays. Fostering better interaction between traditional healers and scientists is advocated to prevent harmful overexploitation, both of local knowledge and of plant species that may have effects against nematode parasites.

Keywords

ethnoveterinary medicinehelminth infectionnematode parasiteslivestockherbal de-wormers
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 6 , Issue 1 , June 2005 , pp. 91 - 103
Copyright
Copyright © CAB International 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abebe, G, Dawson, LJ, Detweiler, G, Gipson, TA and Sahlu, T (2000). Hagenia abyssinica (Kosso) for internal parasite control in goats. In: Merkel, RC, Abebe, G and Goetsch, AL (eds) The Opportunities and Challenges of Enhancing Goat Production in East Africa, 10–12 November 2000, Debub University, Awassa, Ethiopia. Langston, OK E (Kika) de la Garza Institute for Goat Research, Langston University, pp. 190–195.Google Scholar
Ademola, IO, Fagbemi, BO and Idowu, SO (2004). Evaluation of the anthelmintic activity of Khaya senegalensis extract against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep: in vitro and in vivo studies. Veterinary Parasitology 122: 151–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akhtar, MS, Chattha, MI and Chaudry, AH (1982). Comparative efficacy of santonin and piperazine against Neoascaris vitulorum in buffalo calves. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 5: 71–76.Google Scholar
Akhtar, MS, Iqbal, Z, Khan, MN and Lateef, M (2000). Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants with particular reference to their use in animals in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Small Ruminant Research 38: 99–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akhtar, MS and Riffat, S (1984). Efficacy of Melia azedarach Linn. (Bahain) and morantel against naturally acquired gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 4: 176–179.Google Scholar
Akhtar, MS and Riffat, S (1986). A field trial of Peganum harmala Linn. seeds (harmal) against natural cestodal infection in beetal goats. Journal of Pharmacology (Univ. Karachi) 4: 79–84.Google Scholar
Al-Qarawi, AA, Mahmoud, OM, Sobaih Haroun, EM and Adam, SE (2001). A preliminary study on the anthelmintic activity of Calotropis procera latex against Haemonchus contortus infection in Najdi sheep. Veterinary Research Communications 25: 61–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alawa, CBI, Adamu, AM, Gefu, JO, Ajanusi, OJ, Abdu, PA, Chiezey, NP, Alawa, JN and Bowman, DD (2003). In vitro screening of two Nigerian medicinal plants (Vernonia amygdalina and Annona senegalensis) for anthelmintic activity. Veterinary Parasitology 113: 73–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alawa, JP, Jokthan, GE and Akut, K (2002). Ethnoveterinary medical practice for ruminants in the subhumid zone of northern Nigeria. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 54: 79–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anonymous (1994). Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Asia: An Information Kit on Traditional Animal Health Care Practices. 4 Vols. Silang, Cavite, Philippines: International Institute of Rural Reconstruction.Google Scholar
Anonymous (1996). Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Kenya: A Field Manual of Traditional Animal Health Practices. Nairobi: Intermediate Technology Development Group and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, p. 226.Google Scholar
Anonymous (2002). World Health Organisation Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002–2005. Geneva: World Health Organisation, p. 61.Google Scholar
Anonymous (2004). Ethnoveterinary Practices in Eastern Africa. Nairobi, Kenya: Community-based Livestock Initiatives Programme (CLIP), p. 91.Google Scholar
Asha, MK, Prashanth, D, Murali, B, Padmaja, R and Amit, A (2001). Anthelmintic activity of essential oil of Ocimum sanctum and eugenol. Fitoterapia 72: 669–670.Google Scholar
Assis, LM, Bevilaqua, CML, Morais, SM, Vieira, LS, Costa, CTC and Souza, JAL (2003). Ovicidal and larvicidal activity in vitro of Spigelia anthelmia Linn. extracts on Haemonchus contortus. Veterinary Parasitology 117: 43–49.Google Scholar
Asuzu, IU, Gray, AI and Waterman, PG (1999). The anthelmintic activity of D-3-O-methylchiroinositol isolated from Piliostigma thonningii stem bark. Fitoterapia 70: 77–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asuzu, IU and Onu, OU (1993). The in vitro acute toxicity of Piliostigma thonningii bark ethanolic extract on selected strongyle larvae of cattle. Fitoterapia 64: 524–528.Google Scholar
Athanasiadou, S, Kyriazakis, I, Jackson, F and Coop, RL (2001). Direct anthelmintic effects of condensed tannins towards different gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep: in vitro and in vivo studies. Veterinary Parasitology 99: 205–219.Google Scholar
Barnes, EH, Dobson, RJ and Barger, IA (1995). Worm control and anthelmintic resistance: adventures with a model. Parasitology Today 11: 56–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bizimana, N (1994). Traditional Veterinary Practice in Africa. Rossdorf, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), p. 917.Google ScholarPubMed
Bøgh, HO, Andreassen, J and Lemmich, J (1996). Anthelmintic usage of extracts of Embelia schimperi from Tanzania. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50: 35–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowman, DD, Lynn, RC and Georgi, JR (2003). Georgi's Parasitology for Veterinarians, 8th edn. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, p. 408.Google Scholar
British Veterinary Codex (1953). British Veterinary Codex. London: The Pharmaceutical Press, p. 767.Google Scholar
British Veterinary Codex (1965). British Veterinary Codex. London: The Pharmaceutical Press.Google Scholar
Catley, A and Mohammed, A (1996). Ethnoveterinary knowledge in Sanaag region, Somaliland (Part II): notes on local methods of treating and preventing livestock disease. Nomadic Peoples 39: 135–146.Google Scholar
CIRAN (2004). Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor. [Available online at http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm.]Google Scholar
Conrad, J, Vogler, B, Klaiber, I, Roos, G, Walter, U and Kraus, W (1998). Two triterpene esters from Terminalia macroptera bark. Phytochemistry 48: 647–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danø, AR, Bøgh, HO (1999). Use of herbal medicine against helminths in livestock–renaissance of an old tradition. World Animal Review 93: 60–67.Google Scholar
de Amorin, A, Borba, HR, Carauta, JP, Lopes, D and Kaplan, MA (1999). Anthelmintic activity of the latex of Ficus species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 64: 255–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desta, B (1995). Ethiopian traditional herbal drugs. Part I: studies on the toxicity and therapeutic activity of local taenicidal medications. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 45: 27–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El Garhy, MF and Mahmoud, LH (2002). Anthelmintic efficacy of traditional herbs on Ascaris lumbricoides. Journal of Egyptian Society of Parasitology 32: 893–900.Google Scholar
Ethnovetweb (2003). Ethnovetweb. [Available online at http://www.ethnovetweb.com/.]Google Scholar
Fakae, BB, Campbell, AM, Barrett, J, Scott, IM, Teesdale-Spittle, PH, Liebau, E and Brophy, PM (2000). Inhibition of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) from parasitic nematodes by extracts from traditional Nigerian medicinal plants. Phytotherapy Research 14: 630–634.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farnsworth, NR, Akerele, O, Bingel, AS, Soejarto, DD and Guo, Z (1985). Medicinal plants in therapy. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 63: 965–981.Google ScholarPubMed
Fernandez, TJ (1991). Local plants having anthelmintic values. ASEAN Journal on Science and Technology for Development 8: 114–119.Google Scholar
Fratkin, E (1996). Traditional medicine and concepts of healing among Samburu pastoralists of Kenya. Journal of Ethnobiology 16: 63–97.Google Scholar
Gachathi, FN (1993). Kikuyu Botanical Dictionary of Plant Names and Uses. 2nd edn. Nairobi: Amref Printing Department, p. 242.Google Scholar
Gakuya, DW (2001). Pharmacological and clinical evaluation of anthelmintic activity of Albizia anthelmintica Brogn, Maerua edulis De Wolf and Maerua subcordata De Wolf plant extracts in sheep and mice. Nairobi: Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Nairobi, p. 157.Google Scholar
Galal, M, Bashir, AK, Salih, AM and Adam, SE (1991). Activity of water extracts of Albizia anthelmintica and A. lebbek barks against experimental Hymenolepis diminuta infection in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 31: 333–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galal, M, Bashir, AK, Salih, AM and Adam, SE (1991). Efficacy of aqueous and butanolic fractions of Albizia anthelmintica against experimental Hymenolepis diminuta infestation in rats. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 33: 537–539.Google ScholarPubMed
Garcia, D, Escalante, M, Delgado, R, Ubeira, FM and Leiro, J (2003). Anthelminthic and antiallergic activities of Mangifera indica L. stem bark components Vimang and mangiferin. Phytotherapy Research 17: 1203–1208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gathuma, JM, Mbaria, JM, Wanyama, J, Kaburia, HFA, Mpoke, L and Mwangi, JN (2004). Efficacy of Myrsine africana, Albizia anthelmintica and Hildebrandtia sepalosa herbal remedies against mixed natural sheep helminthosis in Samburu district, Kenya. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 91: 7–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, TG and Thompson, DP (2001). Caenorhabditis elegans: how good a model for veterinary parasites. Veterinary Parasitology 101: 371–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, NK, Babu, SP, Sukul, NC and Ito, A (1996). Cestocidal activity of Acacia auriculiformis. Journal of Helminthology 70: 171–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Githiori, JB (2004). Evaluation of Anthelmintic Properties of Ethnoveterinary Plant Preparations Used as Livestock Dewormers by Pastoralists and Small Holder Farmers in Kenya. Vol. 173. Uppsala, Sweden: Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Division of Parasitology and Virology (SWEPAR), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, p. 72.Google Scholar
Githiori, JB, Höglund, J, Waller, PJ and Baker, RL (2002). Anthelmintic activity of preparations derived from Myrsine africana and Rapanea melanophloeos against the nematode parasite, Haemonchus contortus, of sheep. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 80: 187–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Githiori, JB, Höglund, J, Waller, PJ and Baker, RL (2003). The anthelmintic efficacy of the plant, Albizia anthelmintica, against the nematode parasites Haemonchus contortus of sheep and Heligmosomoides polygyrus of mice. Veterinary Parasitology 116: 23–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Githiori, JB, Höglund, J, Waller, PJ and Baker, RL (2003). Evaluation of anthelmintic properties of extracts from some plants used as livestock dewormers by pastoralist and smallholder farmers in Kenya against Heligmosomoides polygyrus infections in mice. Veterinary Parasitology 118: 215–226.Google Scholar
Githiori, JB, Höglund, J, Waller, PJ and Baker, RL (2004). Evaluation of anthelmintic properties of some plants used as livestock dewormers against Haemonchus contortus infections in sheep. Parasitology 129: 245–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grade, JT and Longok, A (2000). Karamajong scientists: participatory field trial of a local dewormer. In: Uganda Veterinary Association Scientific Conference: The Veterinary Profession and Poverty Alleviation, 28–29 September 2000.Google Scholar
Guarrera, PM (1999). Traditional antihelmintic, antiparasitic and repellent uses of plants in Central Italy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 68: 183–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammond, JA, Fielding, D and Bishop, SC (1997). Prospects for plant anthelmintics in tropical veterinary medicine. Veterinary Research Communications 21: 213–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, J and Perry, B (1994). The Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control of Helminth Parasites of Ruminants: A Handbook. Nairobi: International Livestock Research Institute, p. 171Google Scholar
Hansson, A, Veliz, G, Naquira, C, Amren, M, Arroyo, M and Arevalo, G (1986). Preclinical and clinical studies with latex from Ficus glabrata HBK, a traditional intestinal anthelminthic in the Amazonian area. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 17: 105–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hördegen, P, Hertzberg, H, Heilmann, J, Langhans, W and Maurer, V (2003). The anthelmintic efficacy of five plant products against gastrointestinal trichostrongylids in artificially infected lambs. Veterinary Parasitology 117: 51–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ibrahim, MA, Nwude, E, Ogunsusi, RA and Aliu, YO (1984). Screening of West African Plants for Anthelmintic Activity. ILCA Bulletin No. 17. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa pp. 19–23.Google Scholar
Idris, UE, Adam, SE and Tartour, G (1982). The anthelmintic efficacy of Artemisia herba-alba against Haemonchus contortus infection in goats. National Institute of Animal Health Quarterly (Tokyo) 22: 138–143.Google ScholarPubMed
Iles, K (1993). Epidemiology and Control of Gastro-Enteric Nematodes of Goats and Sheep in Pastoral Areas of Kenya. Edinburgh, UK: Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, p. 81.Google Scholar
Iqbal, Z, Nadeem, QK, Khan, MN, Akhtar, MS and Waraich, FN (2001). In vitro anthelmintic activity of Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale, Curcurbita mexicana and Ficus religiosa. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 3: 454–457.Google Scholar
Jost, CC, Sherman, DM, Thomson, EF and Hesselton, RM (1996). Kamala (Mallotus philippinensis) fruit is ineffective as an anthelminthic against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats indigenous to Balochistan, Pakistan. Small Ruminant Research 20: 147–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabasa, JD, Opuda-Asibo, J ter Meulen, U (2000). The effect of oral administration of polyethylene glycol on faecal helminth egg counts in pregnant goats grazed on browse containing condensed tannins. Tropical Animal Health and Production 32: 73–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahiya, C, Mukaratirwa, S and Thamsborg, SM (2003). Effects of Acacia nilotica and Acacia karoo diets on Haemonchus contortus infection in goats. Veterinary Parasitology 115: 265–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahn, LP and Diaz-Hernandez, A (2000). Tannins with anthelmintic properties. In: Brooker, JD (ed.) Tannins in Livestock and Human Nutrition: Proceedings of An International Conference, 31 May–2 June 1999, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Adelaide, Australia, pp. 130–139.Google Scholar
Kasonia, K, Ansay, M, Basegere, N, Gustin, P, Kaba, S, Katsongeri, M and Matamba, M (1991). Note d'ethnopharmacologie veterinaire en cas de verminoses, diarrhoea, corprostase et meteorisme au Kivu et Kibali-ituri (Zaire). Tropicultura 9: 169–172.Google Scholar
Kermanshai, R, McCarry, BE, Rosenfeld, J, Summers, PS, Weretilnyk, EA and Sorger, GJ (2001). Benzyl isothiocyanate is the chief or sole anthelmintic in papaya seed extracts. Phytochemistry 57: 427–435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keyyu, JD, Kyvsgaard, NC, Kassuku, AA and Willingham, AL (2003). Worm control practices and anthelmintic usage in traditional and dairy cattle farms in the southern highlands of Tanzania. Veterinary Parasitology 114: 51–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Köhler-Rollefson, I, Mundy, P and Mathias, E (2001). A Field Manual of Camel Diseases: Traditional and Modern Veterinary Care for the Dromedary. London: ITDG Publishing and the League for Pastoral Peoples, p. 254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koko, WS, Galal, M and Khalid, HS (2000). Fasciolicidal efficacy of Albizia anthelmintica and Balanites aegyptiaca compared with albendazole. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 71: 247–252.Google Scholar
Kokwaro, JO (1993). Medicinal Plants of East Africa, 2nd edn. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, p. 401.Google Scholar
Lans, C, Harper, T, Georges, K and Bridgewater, E (2000). Medicinal plants used for dogs in Trinidad and Tobago. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 45: 201–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lateef, M, Iqbal, Z, Khan, MN, Akhtar, MS and Jabbar, A (2003). Anthelmintic activity of Adhatoda vesica roots. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 5: 86–90.Google Scholar
Leakey, LSB (1977a). The Southern Kikuyu before 1903. Vol. 1. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Leakey, LSB (1977c). The Southern Kikuyu Before 1903. Vol. 3. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Lindsay, RS (1978). Medicinal Plants of Marakwet, Kenya. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens, p. 49.Google Scholar
Madibela, OR and Jansen, K (2003). The use of indigenous parasitic plant (Viscum verrocosum) in reducing faecal egg counts in female Tswana goats Livestock Research for Rural Development 15 (9). [Available online at http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd15/9/madi159.htm].Google Scholar
Makhubu, L (1998). Bioprospecting in an African context. Science 282: 41–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, M, McCorkle, CM and Mathias, E (2001). Ethnoveterinary Medicine: An Annotated Bibliography of Community Animal Healthcare. London: Intermediate Technology Development Group Publishing, p. 480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathias-Mundy, E and McCorkle, CM (1989). Ethnoveterinary Medicine: An Annotated Bibliography. Vol. 6. Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development, Iowa State University, p. 199.Google Scholar
Mbaria, JM, Maitho, TE, Mitema, ES and Muchiri, DJ (1998). Comparative efficacy of pyrethrum marc with albendazole against sheep gastrointestinal nematodes. Tropical Animal Health and Production 30: 17–22.Google Scholar
McCorkle, CM (1986). An introduction to ethnoveterinary research and development. Journal of Ethnobiology 6: 129–149.Google Scholar
McCorkle, CM, Mathias, E and Veen, TWSv (1996). Ethnoveterinary Research and Development. London: Intermediate Technology Publications, p. 338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGaw, LJ, Jager, AK van Staden, J (2000). Antibacterial, anthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in South African medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72: 247–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGaw, LJ, Rabe, T, Sparg, SG, Jager, AK, Eloff, JN van Staden, J (2001). An investigation on the biological activity of Combretum species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75: 45–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKenna, PB and Simpson, BH (1987). The estimation of gastrointestinal strongyle worm burdens in young sheep flocks: a new approach to the interpretation of faecal egg counts, II. Evaluation. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 35: 98–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mesfin, T and Obsa, T (1994). Ethiopian traditional veterinary practices and their possible contribution to animal production and management. Review of Science and Technology 13: 417–424.Google Scholar
Minja, MM (1994). Medicinal plants used in the promotion of animal health in Tanzania. Review of Science and Technology 13: 905–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minja, MMJ (1999). The Maasai wonder plants. In: People and Plants Training Workshop, 15–18 March 1999, Tropical Pesticide Research Institute: Arusha, Tanzania.Google Scholar
Molgaard, P, Nielsen, SB, Rasmussen, DE, Drummond, RB, Makaza, N and Andreassen, J (2001). Anthelmintic screening of Zimbabwean plants traditionally used against schistosomiasis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 74: 257–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Namanda, AT (1998). Ethnoveterinary practice among the Gabbra nomadic pastoralists of Northern Kenya. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 5: 305–308.Google Scholar
Nfi, A, Ndi, C, Bayemi, PH, Njwe, R, Tchoumboue, J, Njakoi, H, Mopio, N, Njakoi, M and Sali-Django, (1999). The anthelmintic efficacy of some indigenous plants in the Northwest province of Cameroon. Revue d Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux 52: 103–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nfi, AN, Mbanya, JN, Ndi, C, Kameni, A, Vabi, M, Pingpoh, D, Yonkeu, S and Moussa, C (2001). Ethnoveterinary medicine in the Northern Provinces of Cameroon. Veterinary Research Communications 25: 71–76.Google Scholar
Niezen, JH, Robertson, HA, Waghorn, GC and Charleston, WA (1998). Production, faecal egg counts and worm burdens of ewe lambs which grazed six contrasting forages. Veterinary Parasitology 80: 15–27.Google Scholar
Njoku, CJ and Asuzu, IU (1998). The anthelmintic effects of the leaf extract of Ocimum gratissimum (L.). Phytomedicine 5: 485–488.Google Scholar
Nwude, N and Ibrahim, AM (1980). Plants used in traditional veterinary practice in Nigeria. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 3: 261–271.Google Scholar
O'Grady, J and Kotze, AC (2004). Haemonchus contortus: in vitro drug screening assays with the adult life stage. Experimental Parasitology 106: 164–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ohta, I (1984). Symptoms are classified into diagnostic categories. Turkana's view of livestock diseases. African Study Monograph 3 (suppl.): 71–90.Google Scholar
Okpekon, T, Yolou, S, Gleye, C, Roblot, F, Loiseau, P, Bories, C, Grellier, P, Frappier, F, Laurens, A and Hocquemiller, R (2004). Antiparasitic activities of medicinal plants used in Ivory Coast. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 90: 91–97.Google Scholar
Ole-Miaron, JO (2003). The Maasai ethnodiagnostic skill of livestock diseases: a lead to traditional bioprospecting. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 84: 79–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Onyeyili, PA, Nwosu, CO, Amin, JD and Jibike, JI (2001). Anthelmintic activity of crude aqueous extract of Nauclea latifolia stem bark against ovine nematodes. Fitoterapia 72: 12–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perrett, S and Whitfield, PJ (1995). Atanine (3-dimethylallyl-4-methoxy-2-quinolone), an alkaloid with anthelmintic activity from the Chinese medicinal plant, Evodia rutaecarpa. Planta Medica 61: 276–278.Google Scholar
Prashanth, D, Asha, MK, Amit, A and Padmaja, R (2001). Anthelmintic activity of Butea monosperma. Fitoterapia 72: 421–422.Google Scholar
PRELUDE (2004). Programme for REsearch and Link between Universities for DEvelopment (PRELUDE). [Available online at http://www.metafro.be/prelude.]Google Scholar
Presidente, PJA (1985). Methods of detection of resistance to anthelmintics. In: Anderson, N and Waller, PJ (eds) Resistance in Nematodes to Anthelmintic Drugs. Canberra, Australia: Division of Animal Health, CSIRO, pp. 13–27.Google Scholar
Sangwan, N and Sangwan, AK (1998). In vitro effects of leaf extracts of Melia azedarach on mortality of Haemonchus contortus. Indian Journal of Animal Research 32: 70–72.Google Scholar
Schillhorn van Veen, TW (1997). Sense or nonsense? Traditional methods of animal parasitic disease control. Veterinary Parasitology 71: 177–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sen, HG, Joshi, BS, Parthasarathy, PC and Kamat, VN (1974). Anthelmintic efficacy of Diospyrol and its derivatives. Arzneimittel Forschung 24: 2000–2003.Google ScholarPubMed
SEPASAL (2003). Survey of Economic Plants for Arid and Semiarid Lands. [Available online at http://www.rbgkew. org.uk/ceb/sepasal/internet/.]Google Scholar
Singh, B and Bhat, TK (2003). Potential therapeutic applications of some antinutritional plant secondary metabolites. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemicals 51: 5579–5597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, K and Nagaich, S (1999). Efficacy of aqueous seed extract of Carica papaya against common poultry worm Ascaridia galli and Hetarakis gallinae. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 23: 113–116.Google Scholar
Sokerya, S and Preston, TR (2003). Effect of grass or cassava foliage on growth and nematode parasite infestation in goats fed low or high protein diets in confinement Livestock Research for Rural Development 15 (8). [Available online at http://www.cipav.org.co/rrd/lrrd15/8/kery158.htm.]Google Scholar
Stadler, M, Dagne, E and Anke, H (1994). Nematicidal activities of two phytoalexins from Taverniera abyssinica. Planta Medica 60: 550–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stepek, G, Behnke, JM, Buttle, DJ and Duce, IR (2004). Natural plant cysteine proteinases as anthelmintics? Trends in Parasitology 20: 322–327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tamboura, HH, Sawadogo, LL, Kabore, H and Yameogo, SM (2000). Ethnoveterinary medicine and indigenous pharmacopoeia of Passore Province in Burkina Faso. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 916: 259–264.Google Scholar
Taylor, MA, Hunt, KR and Goodyear, KL (2002). Anthelmintic resistance detection methods. Veterinary Parasitology 103: 183–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Than, A, Bwin, M, Han, S, Myint, T, Lwin, M and Aung, SP (1993). Screening of some medicinal plants reputed for anthelmintic activity on in vitro test models. Myanmar Health Sciences Research Journal 5: 79–84.Google Scholar
Uncini Manganelli, RE, Camangi, F and Tomei, PE (2001). Curing animals with plants: traditional usage in Tuscany (Italy). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 78: 171–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Urquhart, GM, Armour, J, Duncan, JL, Dunn, AM and Jennings, FW (1996). Veterinary Parasitology, 2nd edn. London: Blackwell Science, p. 307.Google Scholar
van der Merwe, D (2000). Use of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants in Cattle by Setswana-Speaking People in the Madikwe Area of the North West Province. Pretoria: Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Pretoria, p. 133.Google Scholar
Vercruysse, J, Holdsworth, P, Letonja, T, Barth, D, Conder, G, Hamamoto, K and Okano, K (2001). International harmonisation of anthelmintic efficacy guidelines. Veterinary Parasitology 96: 171–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vieira, LS, Cavalcante, ACR, Pereira, MF, Dantas, LB and Ximenes, LJF (1999). Evaluation of anthelmintic efficacy of plants available in Ceara state, North-east Brazil, for the control of goat gastrointestinal nematodes. Revue de Medecine Veterinaire 150: 447–452.Google Scholar
Villasenor, IM, Angelada, J, Canlas, AP and Echegoyen, D (2002). Bioactivity studies on beta-sitosterol and its glucoside. Phytotherapy Research 16: 417–421.Google Scholar
Vishnyauskas, A, Sharplauskas, I, Matusyavichyus, A, Sebel'din, A, Glukhov, S, Lazdinis, G and Pyatronis, S (1993). Directed screening of anthelmintic preparations. Biologija 1: 94–95.Google Scholar
Waghorn, GC and McNabb, WC (2003). Consequences of plant phenolic compounds for productivity and health of ruminants. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62: 383–392.Google Scholar
Wahid, FN, Behnke, JM and Conway, DJ (1989). Factors affecting the efficacy of ivermectin against Heligmosomoides polygyrus (Nematospiroides dubius) in mice. Veterinary Parasitology 32: 325–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, PJ (1986). Anthelmintic resistance in nematode parasites of sheep. In: Russell, GE (ed) Agricultural Zoological Reviews. Ponteland, Newcastle upon Tyne: Intercept Scientific, Medical and Technical Publications, pp. 333–373.Google Scholar
Waller, PJ, Bernes, G, Thamsborg, SM, Sukura, A, Richter, SH, Ingebrigtsen, K and Hoglund, J (2001). Plants as de-worming agents of livestock in the Nordic countries: historical perspective, popular beliefs and prospects for the future. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 42: 31–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, PJ and Thamsborg, SM (2004). Nematode control in “green” ruminant production systems. Trends in Parasitology 20: 493–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wanyama, JB (1997a). Confidently Used Ethnoveterinary Knowledge Among Pastoralists of Samburu, Kenya. Vol. 1: Methodology and Results. Nairobi: Intermediate Technology Kenya, p. 82.Google Scholar
Wanyama, JB (1997b). Confidently Used Ethnoveterinary Knowledge Among Pastoralists of Samburu, Kenya. Vol. 2: Preparation and Administration. Nairobi: Intermediate Technology Kenya, p. 109.Google Scholar
Wanyama, JB (2000). Ethnoveterinary knowledge research and development in Kenya. In: Rukangira, E (ed) International Conference on Medicinal Plants, Traditional Medicine and Local Communities in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities of the New Millennium, 15–26 May 2000, Nairobi, Kenya.Google Scholar
Watt, JM and Breyer-Brandwijk, MG (1962). Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa, 2nd edn. Edinburgh and London: E&S Livingstone Ltd, p. 1457.Google Scholar
Weiss, EA (1979). Some indigenous plants used domestically by East African coastal fishermen. Economic Botany 33: 35–51.Google Scholar
Wilson, RT and Mariam Woldo, G (1979). Medicine and magic in Central Tigre: a contribution to the ethnobotany of the Ethiopian plateau. Economic Botany 33: 29–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, IB, Amaral, NK, Bairden, K, Duncan, JL, Kassai, T, Malone, JB, Jr Pankavich, JA, Reinecke, RK, Slocombe, O and Taylor, SM (1995). World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (W.A.A.V.P.), second edition of guidelines for evaluating the efficacy of anthelmintics in ruminants (bovine, ovine, caprine). Veterinary Parasitology 58: 181–213.Google Scholar