Hostname: page-component-669899f699-7xsfk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-25T01:46:25.901Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

SOULS OF THE ANCESTORS: POSTCLASSIC MAYA ARCHITECTURE, INCENSARIOS, AND MANA

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 January 2018

Leslie G. Cecil  and
Timothy W. Pugh
Leslie G. Cecil*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Geography, and Sociology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, Texas 75962
Timothy W. Pugh
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Queens College, Flushing, New York 11367
*
E-mail correspondence to: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article, we consider how the Postclassic Kowoj Maya of the central Peten lakes region of El Petén, Guatemala utilized mana in conjunction with their ritual objects and spolia to mediate between the natural and supernatural worlds. In many cultures worldwide and throughout time, mana (magical or spiritual powers that provide people and objects with a living force) transforms the ordinary into the spiritually powerful. The Kowojs imbued incense burners and buildings with mana, thus facilitating a connection with their ancestors. We examine the manufacturing recipe of a group of incense burners and the civic-ceremonial buildings at Zacpeten to argue that the Kowoj used these objects to mediate among the living, the dead, and the supernatural realms. Ultimately, by empowering these objects with mana, the Kowoj constructed a universe where they regularly communicated with their ancestors and built structures that ensouled their historical consciousness.

Type
Research Article
Information
Ancient Mesoamerica , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , Spring 2018 , pp. 157 - 170
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

Abrams, Elliot M. 1998 Structures as Sites: The Construction Process and Maya Architecture. In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, edited by Houston, Stephen D., pp. 123–140. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Adams, Richard E. W., and Trik, Aubrey S. 1958 Temple I (Str. 5D-1): Post-Constructional Activities. Tikal Reports, No. 7. The University Museum of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Andrews, E. Wyllys IV, and Andrews V, E. Wyllys 1980 Excavations at Dzibilchaltun, Yucatan, Mexico. Middle American Research Institute Publication No. 48. Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Arnold, Dean E. 1971 Ethnominerology of Ticul, Yucatán Potters: Etics and Emics. American Antiquity 36:20–40.Google Scholar
Ball, Joseph W. 1982 Appendix I: The Tancah Ceramic Situation: Cultural and Historical Insights from an Alternative Material Class. In On the Edge of the Sea: Mural Painting at Tancah-Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico, edited by Miller, Arthur, pp. 105–111. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Bishop, Ronald L., and Rands, Robert L 1982 Maya Fine Paste Ceramics: A Compositional Comparison. In Excavations at Seibal, Department of Petén, Guatemala, edited by Sabloff, Jeremy A., pp. 283–314. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bishop, Ronald L., Rands, Robert L., and Holley, Gordon R. 1982 Ceramic Compositional Analysis in Archaeological Perspective. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 5, edited by Schiffer, Michael B., pp. 275–330. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Blackman, M. James, and Bishop, Ronald L. 2007 Smithsonian-NIST Partnership: Application of Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis to Archaeology. Archaeometry 49:321–341.Google Scholar
Blaffer, Sarah C. 1972 The Black-man of Zinacantan. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Blake, Kevin S., and Smith, Jeffrey S. 2000 Pueblo Mission Churches as Symbols of Permanence and Identity. Geographical Review 90:359–380.Google Scholar
Brenk, Beat 1987 Spolia from Constantine to Charlemagne: Aesthetics versus Ideology. Dumbarton Oaks Papers 41:103–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Linda A. 2000 From Discard to Divination: Demarcating the Sacred Through the Collection and Curation of Discarded Objects. Latin American Antiquity 11:319–333.Google Scholar
Brown, Linda A., and Emery, Kitty F. 2008 Negotiations with the Animate Forest: Hunting Shrines in the Guatemalan Highlands. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 15:300–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Linda A., and Walker, William H. 2008 Prologue: Archaeology, Animism and Non-Human Agents. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 15:297–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cecil, Leslie G. 2001 Technological Styles of Late Postclassic Slipped Pottery from the Central Petén Lakes Region, El Petén, Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Cecil, Leslie G. 2009 Technological Styles of Slipped Pottery and Kowoj Identity. In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Politics in Late Postclassic Petén, Guatemala, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 221–237. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Cecil, Leslie G. 2014 Postclassic Ceramic Database. Electronic document, http://faculty.sfasu.edu/cecillg/index.html, accessed March 24, 2016.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 1998 The Architectural Context of Caches, Burials, and Other Ritual Activities for the Classic Period Maya (as Reflected at Caracol, Belize). In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, edited by Houston, Stephen F., pp. 239–332. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z. 1985 Ganned But Not Forgotten: Late Postclassic Archaeology and Ritual at Santa Rita Corozal, Belize. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Chase, Arlen F. and Rice, Prudence M., pp. 104–125. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Childs, S. Terry 1989 Petrographic Analysis of Archaeological Ceramics. Materials Research Science 25:24–29.Google Scholar
Christenson, Allen J. 2016 The Burden of the Ancestors. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Chuchiak, John F. IV 2009 De Descriptio Idolorum: An Ethnohistorical Examination of the Production, Imagery, and Functions of Colonial Yucatec Maya Idols and Effigy Censers, 1540–1700. In Maya Worldviews at Conquest, edited by Cecil, Leslie G. and Pugh, Timothy W., pp. 135–158. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Coe, Michael D. 1965 A Model of Ancient Community Structure in the Maya Lowlands. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12:97–114.Google Scholar
Cortés, Hernán 1976 Cartas de Relación. 9th ed. Editorial Porrua, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Cuevas García, Martha, and Bernal Romero, Guillermo 2002 La funcíon ritual de los incensarios compuestos del Grupo de las Cruces de Palenque. Estudios de Cultural Maya 22:13–32.Google Scholar
Davis, Virginia D. 1978 Ritual of the Northern Lacandon Maya. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Elson, Christina M., and Smith, Michael E. 2001 Archaeological Deposits from the Aztec New Fire Ceremony. Ancient Mesoamerica 12:157–174.Google Scholar
Farriss, Nancy M. 1987 Remembering the Future, Anticipating the Past: History, Time and Cosmology among the Maya of Yucatan. Comparative Studies in Society and History 29:566–593.Google Scholar
Ferree, Lisa 1972 Pottery Censers of Tikal, Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Fry, Robert E. 1979 Economics of Pottery at Tikal, Guatemala: Models of Exchange for Serving Vessels. American Antiquity 44:494–512.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas 1900 Mounds in Northern Honduras. In 1897–1898 Bureau of American Ethnology, Nineteenth Annual Report, Part 2, edited by Powell, J.W., pp. 661–692. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Gonnella, Julia 2010 Columns and Hieroglyphs: Magic Spolia in Medieval Islamic Architecture of Northern Syria. Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World 27:103–120.Google Scholar
Gosden, Chris 2005 What Do Objects Want? Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 12:193–211.Google Scholar
Gosden, Chris, and Marshall, Yvonne 1999 The Cultural Biography of Objects. World Archaeology 31:169–178.Google Scholar
Gosselain, Oliver P. 1999 In Pots We Trust: Processing Clay and Symbols in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Material Culture 4:205–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graff, Donald 1997 Dating a Section of the Madrid Codex: Astronomical and Iconographic Evidence. In Papers on the Madrid Codex, edited by Bricker, Victoria R. and Vail, Gabrielle, pp. 147–167. Middle American Research Institute, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Graff, Donald, and Vail, Gabrielle 2001 Censers and Stars: Issues in the Dating of the Madrid Codex. Latin American Indian Literatures Journal 17:58–95.Google Scholar
Gravel, Pierre Bettez 1995 The Malevolent Eye: An Essay on the Evil Eye, Fertility and the Concept of Mana. Peter Lang, New York.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, Michael 2011 Spolia: A Definition in Ruins. In Reuse Value: Spolia and Appropriation in Art and Architecture from Constantine to Sherrie Levine, edited by Brilliant, Richard and Kinney, Dale, pp. 75–96. Ashgate, Burlington.Google Scholar
Halperin, Christina T. 2014 Maya Figurines: Intersections between State and Household. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Hamann, Bryon Ellsworth 2008 Chronological Pollution: Potsherds, Mosques, and Broken Gods Before and After the Conquest of Mexico. Current Anthropology 49:803–836.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Bobo, Matthew R. 1994 Pilgrimage's Last Mile: Late Maya Monument Veneration at La Milpa, Belize. World Archaeology 26:19–34.Google Scholar
Helms, Mary W. 1998 Access to Origins: Affines, Ancestors, and Aristocrats. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Houston, Stephen 2014 The Life Within: Classic Maya and the Matter of Permanence. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Houston, Stephen D., and Stuart, David S. 1996 Of Gods, Glyphs and Kings: Divinity and Rulership among the Classic Maya. Antiquity 70:289–312.Google Scholar
Jones, Grant D. 1998 The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Jones, Grant D., Rice, Don S., and Rice, Prudence M. 1981 The Location of Tayasal: A Reconsideration in Light of Petén Maya Ethnohistory and Archaeology. American Antiquity 46:530–547.Google Scholar
Keesing, Roger M. 1984 Rethinking Mana. Journal of Anthropological Research 40:137–156.Google Scholar
Lillios, Katina T. 1999 Objects of Memory: The Ethnography and Archaeology of Heirlooms. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 6:235–262.Google Scholar
Little, Nicole C., Kosakowsky, Laura J., Glascock, Michael D., and Speakman, Robert J. 2004 Characterization of Maya Pottery by INAA and ICP-MS. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 262:103–110.Google Scholar
Lucero, Lisa J. 2008 Memorializing Place among Classic Maya Commoners. In Memory Work: Archaeology of Material Practices, edited by Mills, Barbara J. and Walker, William H., pp. 187–206. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Marett, Robert R. 1909 The Threshold of Religion. Methuen, London.Google Scholar
Mauss, Marcel 1966 The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. Cohen and West, London.Google Scholar
Mauss, Marcel 1972[1902] A General Theory of Magic. Translated by Brain, Robert. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1995 Living with the Ancestors: Kinship and Kingship in Ancient Maya Society. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
McGee, R. Jon 1998 The Lacandon Incense Burner Renewal Ceremony: Termination and Dedication Ritual among the Contemporary Maya. In The Sowing and the Dawning: Termination, Dedication, and Transformation in the Archaeological and Ethnographic Record of Mesoamerica, edited by Mock, Shirley B., pp. 41–46. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Milbrath, Susan, and Peraza Lope, Carlos 2003 Revisiting Mayapán. Ancient Mesoamerica 14:1–46.Google Scholar
Milbrath, Susan, and Peraza Lope, Carlos 2012 Mayapán's Chen Mul Modeled Effigy Censers: Iconography and Archaeological Context. In Ancient Maya Pottery: Classification, Analysis, and Interpretation, edited by Aimers, James John, pp. 203–228. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Miller, Arthur G. 1982 On the Edge of the Sea: Mural Painting at Tancah-Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Miller, Daniel 2001 Possessions. In Home Possessions: Material Culture behind Closed Doors, edited by Miller, Daniel, pp. 107–121. Bloomsbury Academic, London.Google Scholar
Mondragon, Carlos 2004 Of Winds, Worms, and Mana. Oceania 74:289–308.Google Scholar
Morley, Sylvanus G., and Brainerd, George W. 1983 The Ancient Maya. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Neff, Hector 2003 Analysis of Mesoamerican Plumbate Pottery Surfaces by Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Journal of Archaeological Science 30:21–35.Google Scholar
Neilsen, Axel E. 2008 The Materiality of the Ancestors: Chullpas and Social Memory in the Late Prehispanic History of the South Andes. In Memory Work: Archaeology of Material Practices, edited by Mills, Barbara J. and Walker, William H., pp. 207–232. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
O'Neil, Megan E. 2009 Ancient Maya Sculptures of Tikal, Seen and Unseen. RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 55/56:119–134.Google Scholar
Paxton, Merideth 1991 Codex Dresden: Late Postclassic Ceramic Depictions and the Problems of Provenience and Date of Painting. In Sixth Palenque Round Table, 1986, edited by Robertson, Merle Greene and Fields, Virginia M., pp. 303–308. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David W. 1998 Intercessions with the Gods: Caches and Their Significance at Altun Ha and Lamanai. In The Sowing and the Dawning: Termination, Dedication, and Transformation in the Archaeological and Ethnographic Record of Mesoamerica, edited by Mock, Shirley B., pp. 55–63. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Pitarch Ramon, Pedro 1993 Etnografía de las almas en Cancúc, Chiapas. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 1996 La zona del lago Salpetén-Zacpetén. In Proyecto Maya-Colonial: Geografía política del siglo XVII en el Centro del Petén, Guatemala, edited by Rice, Don S., Rice, Prudence M., Polo, Rómulo Sánchez, and Jones, Grant D., pp. 206–221. Informe preliminar al Instituto de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala sobre investigaciones del campo en los años 1994 y 1995. Instituto de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 2001 Architecture, Ritual, and Social Identity at Late Postclassic Zacpetén, Petén, Guatemala: Identification of the Kowoj. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 2004 Activity Areas, Form, and Social Inequality in Late Postclassic Domestic Groups at Zacpetén, Petén, Guatemala. Journal of Field Archaeology 29:351–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W. 2009 The Kowoj and the Lacandon: Migrations and Identities. In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Politics in Late Postclassic Petén, Guatemala, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 368–384. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W., Sánchez, José Rómulo, and Shiratori, Yuko 2012 Contact and Missionization at Tayasal, Petén, Guatemala. Journal of Field Archaeology 37:3–19.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W., and Rice, Prudence M.. 2009a Kowoj Ritual Performance and Societal Representations at Zacpetén. In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 141–172. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W., and Rice, Prudence M.. 2009b Zacpetén and the Kowoj. In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 85–122. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Pugh, Timothy W., Rice, Prudence M., and Cecil, Leslie G. 2009 Zacpetén Structure 719: The Last Noble Residence. In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 192–216. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S., Rice, Prudence M., Polo, Rómulo Sánchez, and Jones, Grant D. 1996 Proyecto Maya-Colonial: Geografía política del siglo XVII en el Centro del Petén, Guatemala. Informe preliminar al Instituto de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala sobre investigaciones del campo en los años 1994 y 1995. Instituto de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S., Rice, Prudence M., and Pugh, Timothy W. 1998 Settlement Continuity and Change in the Central Petén Lakes Region: The Case for Zacpetén. In Anatomía de una civilización: Approximaciones interdisciplines a la cultura Maya, edited by Cuidad Riuz, Andrés, Fernández Marquínez, María Yolanda, García Campillo, José, Ponce de León, María Josefa Iglesias, García-Gallo, Alfonso Lacadena, and Sanz Castro, Luis Tomas, pp. 207–252. Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas, Madrid.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M. 1999 Rethinking Classic Lowland Maya Pottery Censers. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:25–50.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M. 2009 Incense Burners and Other Ritual Ceramics. In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 276–315. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S. (editors) 2009 The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S. (editors) 2018a Classic-to-Contact Period Continuities in Maya Governance in Central Petén, Guatemala. Ethnohistory 65. In press.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S. (editors) 2018b Historical and Archaeological Perspectives on the Itzas of Petén, Guatemala. University Press of Colorado, Boulder. In press.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M., and Cecil, Leslie G. 2009 The Iconography and Decorative Programs of Kowoj Pottery. In The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics, edited by Rice, Prudence M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 238–275. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Robicsek, Francis 1975 A Study in Maya Art and History: The Mat Symbol. Heye Foundation Museum of the American Indian, New York.Google Scholar
Satterthwaite, Linton 1958 The Problem of Abnormal Stela Placements at Tikal and Elsewhere. Tikal Reports, No. 3. The University Museum of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Sidrys, Raymond W. 1983 Archaeological Excavations in Northern Belize. Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Smith, Fred T. 1989 Earth, Vessels, and Harmony among the Gurensi. African Arts 22:60–65.Google Scholar
Smith, Robert E. 1971 The Pottery of Mayapán. 2 vols. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 66. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Smith, Robert E., Willey, Gordon R., and Gifford, James C. 1960 The Type-Variety Concept as a Basis for the Analysis of Maya Pottery. American Antiquity 25:330–340.Google Scholar
Sterner, Judy 1989 Who Is Signaling Whom? Ceramic Style, Ethnicity and Taphonomy among the Sirak Bulahay. Antiquity 63:451–459.Google Scholar
Stross, Brian 1998 Seven Ingredients in Mesoamerican Ensoulment: Dedication and Termination in Tenejapa. In Sowing and Dawning: Termination, Dedication, and Transformation in the Archaeological and Ethnographic Record of Mesoamerica, edited by Mock, Shirley B. and Walker, Debra S., pp. 31–40. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Stuart, David 1988 Blood Symbolism in Maya Iconography. In Maya Iconography, edited by Benson, Elizabeth P. and Griffin, Gillett G., pp. 175–221. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Tambiah, Stanley J. 1973 Form and Meaning of Magical Acts. In Culture, Thought and Social Action: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Tambiah, Stanley, pp. 60–86. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Tozzer, Alfred (translator and editor) 1941 Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatan. Papers of the Peabody Museum, Vol 18. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Tylor, Edward Burnett 1871 Primitive Culture, Vol. 2. John Murray, London.Google Scholar
Vail, Gabrielle 1996 The Gods in the Madrid Codex: An Iconographic and Glyphic Analysis. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Vail, Gabrielle, and Hernández, Christine 2013 The Maya Codices Database, Version 4.1. Electronic document, http://www.mayacodices.org/, accessed September 18, 2017.Google Scholar
Villacorta, J. Antonio, and Villacorta, Carlos A. 1930 Códices Mayas. Tipografía Nacional, Guatemala.Google Scholar
Villa Rojas, Alphonso 1945 The Maya of East Central Quintana Roo. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 559. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z. 1965 Zinacanteco “Souls.” Man 65:33–35.Google Scholar
Wagley, Charles 1941 Economics of a Guatemala Village. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, Vol. 43. American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Walker, William H. 1995 Ceremonial Trash? In Expanding Archaeology, edited by Skibo, James M., Walker, William H., and Nielsen, Axel E., pp. 67–79. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Walker, William H. 2008 Practice and Nonhuman Social Actors: The Afterlife Histories of Witches and Dogs in the American Southwest. In Memory Work: Archaeology of Material Practices, edited by Mills, Barbara J. and Walker, William H., pp. 137–158. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Walker, William H., and Schiffer, Michael Brian 2006 The Materiality of Social Power: The Artifact-Acquisition Perspective. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 13:67–87.Google Scholar
Watanabe, John M. 1992 Maya Saints and Souls in a Changing World. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Wren, Linnea, Nygard, Travis, and Spencer, Kaylee 2015 Establishing and Translating Maya Spaces at Tonina and Ocosingo: How Indigenous Portraits Were Moved, Mutilated, and Made Christian in New Spain. In Memory Traces: Analyzing Sacred Space at Five Mesoamerican Sites, edited by Kristan-Graham, Cynthia and Amrhein, Laura M., pp. 169–202. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Zedeño, María Nieves 2008 Bundled Worlds: The Roles and Interactions of Complex Objects from the North American Plains. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 15:362–378.Google Scholar