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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 August 2014
The historiography of genetics is not very extensive. As a tribute to Gregor Mendel the Genesis of modern Genetics is briefly described in its full range, from the Paleolithic Age to Lysenko. Since the earliest times, the knowledge of heredity had been growing in proportion with the development of ideas on reproduction and continuity of the species. For various forms of life, the basic problems of interest remained essentially the same during all historical periods; only the emphasis shifted from the gross to the more detailed, and the answers oscillated between the theories of preformation and epigenesis. Against this historical background, Mendel and the Mendelian laws stand out as the basic foundation of genetics.
The vital growing ideas on generation and evolution of plants, animals, and man are briefly reviewed and exposed as they had occurred before and after Mendel. The historical sketch leads us to ancient Assyria, India, the biblical times, and the classical Antiquity, to the early Greek philosophers and physicians whose works are sampled to illustrate the ancient beliefs concerning the role of male and female semen in generation, and concerning the proportional share of parents in the formation of body and mind of the offspring. The medieval knowledge on heredity is at its highest in the writings of Albertus Magnus whose work represents the refinement of scholastic science.
In these earlier times people did not know the exact functions of the organs of generation, or the true nature of sex. After the invention of the microscope in the 16th, and with a more liberal spirit of research in the 17th centuries, the sexual life and the male and female germ cells of many bisexual beings, including man, were gradually discovered during the 200-year period from 1677 to 1877. This happened with all sorts of speculation about heredity and about the origin and evolution of life. Meanwhile, many practical and theoretical hybridizers saw the various peculiarities in the filial generations, and many observed normal and abnormal characters transmitted from parents to offspring. Yet, none could formulate these observations into a mathematical regularity of inheritance until the reports of Gregor Mendel in 1865 on the result of his plant-crossings.
His discovery was buried, however, until 1900 when other biologists came to the same results, and revived and accepted his rules as the laws of heredity. From then on, modern genetics advanced rapidly and branched into many activities, everywhere fully supporting the views of Mendel. Thus, Mendel is truly the father of genetics, except for communist Russians whose political theories demand the denial of Mendelian heredity and the adherence to older discarded theories.
Genetics has the destiny to solve many practical problems in the life of nations, and to investigate a number of important yet unknown factors, in order to utilize the gene theory of heredity, and the “nuclear energy”, for a wider and brighter service of humanity.
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92 The bibliography of genetics is well covered by the Index-Catalogue up to March 31, 1950. Thereafter, the special bibliographical lists of the genetic journals, especially that of the American Journal of Human Genetics, provide the most complete survey of the subject literature. The Index-Catalogue is available in all countries, in the large medical and university libraries.
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111 Cf. Footnote 108.
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127 Liber 7, Cap. 10, Historia naturalis: “…In Lepidorum gente tres, intermisso ordine, obducto membram oculo, genitos accepimus. Similes quidem alios avo: et ex geminis quoque alterum patri, alterum matri: annoque post genitum, maiori similem fuisse ut geminum”.
128 Liber 7, Cap. 10, Historia naturalis: “Indubitatum exemplum est Nicaei nobilis pyctae Byzantii geniti, qui adulterio Aethiopis nata matre, nil a ceteris colore differente, ipso avum regeneravit Aethiopem”.
129 Liber 7, Cap. 10, Historia naturalis: “Cogitatio etiam, utriuslibet animum subito transvolans, effingere similitudinem aut miscere existimatur”.
130 Liber 7, Cap. 10, Historia naturalis: “Ideoque plures in homine, quam in ceteris omnibus animalibus differentiae: quoniam velocitas cogitationum, animique celeritas, et ingenii varietas multiformes notas imprimat: cum ceteris animantibus immobiles sint animae, et similes omnibus, singulisque in suo cuique genere”.
131 Liber 7, Cap. 10, Historia naturalis: “…Haec facit ubertas soli, temperies caeli, aquarum abundantia, (si libeat credere) ita sub una ficu turmae condantur equitum”.
132 Lib. 24, cap. 102.
133 Lib. 13, cap. 7: “Adeoque est Veneris intellectus, ut cultus etiam excogitatus sit ab homine, ex maribus flore ac lanugine, interim vero tantum pulvere insperso in feminis”.
134 Lucretius: “Semper enim partus duplici de semine constat”.
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141 Ibid., 80.
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158 In his Rariorum aliquot stirpium per Hispaniae observatarum libri (Antw., 1576); cf. Zirkle, Footnote 40 (p. 69).
159 Reprinted in Schurig, Syllepsologia. Cap. 9, Sect. 5: De gravidarum imaginatione, p. 651 (Dresd., 1731):
“Atqui graves tradunt sophi,
quodcumque matres interim
imaginantur fortiter,
dum liberis dature opera
eius latenter, et notas
certas et indelibiles
modoque inexplicabili
in semen ipsum congeri.
Quibus receptis intime
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183 Among the skeptics were Peyer (1685), Harder (1687) and all the socalled animalculists.
184 It was Pouchet in the 19th century who claimed the glory of discovery for Louis Gardin. I could not check the right of this claim. Others who were mentioned as discoverers of the spermatozoon are Nicolaas Hartsoeker (1656-1725), and Stenon (1638-1687).
185 Leeuwenhoek was also practical breeder of Dutch rabbits and Belgian pigeons. For this reason J. Boeke considers him a precursor of Mendel, But Leeuwenhoek only mentions how rabbits are bred by crossing wild gray males with domestic females of any color, and the paternal gray will dominate in the offspring, cf. his Epistola de generatione ranarum, 26 July, 1683 (In his Op. omn., v. 1, 49).
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