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Religion, Gender Ideology, and the Training of Female Public Elementary School Teachers in Nineteenth Century Chile

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

Gertrude Yeager
Gertrude Yeager*
Affiliation:
Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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Extract

After only five days she felt like a different person, so much unpicked and resown and made over to a different pattern…. Catholicism isn’t a religion, it’s a nationality. In her four years at [school], it [religion] had grown into every fiber of her nature; she could not eat or sleep or read or play without relating every action to her secret life as a Christian and a Catholic. She rejoiced in it and rebelled against it. She tried to imagine what life would be like without it; how she would feel if she were a savage blessedly ignorant of the very existence of god. But it was as impossible as imagining death or madness or blindness. Wherever she looked, it loomed in the background … the fortress of God, the house on the rock.

Education became a responsibility of the state in Chile soon after independence. Scholarship has usually linked the expansion of public primary education to the broader liberal agenda of the secularization of society through the introduction of modern thinking, while the common curriculum became a tool of national integration.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 62 , Issue 2 , October 2005 , pp. 209 - 243
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 2005

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References

1 White, Antonia, Frost in May (New York, 1933), p. 136 Google Scholar.

2 Chilean historiography of education celebrates the secular nature of women’s education through periodization schemes that mark the establishment of public secondary schooling for women in 1877 and for primary education, the 1885 Germanic Reform. This essay focuses on an earlier period and the establishment of primary schooling for women. A useful tool is Grossi, María Clara, Bibliografía de la educación, 1973-1980 (Santiago, 1980)Google Scholar. The two best-known surveys are Amanda, Labarca H., Historia de la enseñanza en Chile (Santiago: Imprenta Universitaria, 1939)Google Scholar and Harriet, Fernando Campos, Desar rollo educacional, 1810-1960 (Santiago, 1960)Google Scholar. Also useful are Vieille, Oriol Renin, La educación primaria en Chile, 1810-1953 (Santiago, 1956)Google Scholar; Hector Vidalia López, , Evolución de la instrucción primaria en la sociedad y del la legislación chilena (Santiago, 1942)Google Scholar; Briones, Plácido, La instrucción primaria en Chile i la pedagogia moderna (Santiago, 1888)Google Scholar; Silvert, Kalman H. and Reissman, Leonard, Education, Class, and Nation, The Experiences of Chile and Venezuela (New York: Elsevier, 1976)Google Scholar; Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de la Educación (CIDE), La educación particular en Chile, antecedentes y dilemmas (Santiago, 1971)Google Scholar; Fredy, Soto R., Antecedentes para un diagnóstico de la educación chilena entre los años 1850 y 1860 (Santiago, 1983)Google Scholar. While this study deals with Chile, for Peru see Rodriquez Rea, Miguel Angel, Bibliografía de Educación 1930-1980 (Lima, 1982)Google Scholar; Bunge, Carlos Octavo, La Educación, (Lima, 1903)Google Scholar; Encinas, José Antonio, La educación: su función social en el Perú en el problema de la nacionalización (Lima, 1913)Google Scholar; y Laos, Felipe Barreda, Historia de la instrucción pública en el Perú independiente (Lima, Peru)Google Scholar; Inide, , Catálogo de Teses doctorales en educación, (Lima, 1981)Google Scholar; Fernandini, Juan Castro, Legislación escolar del Perú: sus origenes, su evolución histórica y sintesis de su realidad actual (Lima: Atenea, 1939)Google Scholar; y Estenos, Roberto MacLean, Sociología educacional del Perú (Lima, 1944)Google Scholar; Harrison, Jorge Castro, Political desarrollo y educación (Lima, 1974)Google Scholar; and Chavez, Ivan Rodriquez, Manuel Gonzalez Proda en el debate de la educación nacional (Lima, 1971)Google Scholar.

3 Bernardino Rivadavia, for example, not only secularized education, but also placed the direction of female public primary education under the authority of the Sociedad de Beneficencia, an association of upper class porteño women. Carlson, Marifran, Feminismo! The Women’s Movement in Argentina from its Beginnings to Eva Perón (Chicago; Academy Chicago Publishers, 1988)Google Scholar.

4 Silvert and Reissman, Education, Class and Nation, p. 114; Ministerio de Educación Pública, Sarmiento, Director de la Escuela Normal, 1842-1845, (Santiago, 1942)Google Scholar. While this article deals with Chile, evidence suggests that Peru took a similar approach to training women teachers for the public primary schools and will cite materials accordingly. The Escuela Normal de Mujeres trained teachers for Peru’s public elementary schools until 1928 when the school became the Instituto Pedagógico Nacional de Mujeres and began training women secondary school teachers. In 1958 it moved to its present location in Monterrico where it enrolls about 1000 women students. The Religious of the Sacred Heart have directed this facility since 1876.

5 Stevens, Evelyn, “Marianismo the Other Side of Machismo,” in Ann Pescatello’s, Female and Male in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1975), pp. 89–102 Google Scholar.

6 While most studies of the RSCJ emphasize its close ties to elite women, recent scholarship charts the adjustments the congregation made in its educational enterprise when it moved outside Europe. See Rebecca Rogers, “Constructing French Womanhood over the Seas: Religious Teaching Congregations and the Civilizing Mission in Africa and the United States in the Nineteenth Century,” paper presented at the XIXe Congres International des Sciences Historiques, University of Oslo, Norway, August 6-13, 2000.

7 The definition of domestic church used here is not informed by recent papal teachings on Christian-Catholic family life. The educational philosophy of the RSCJ can be found in: Cahier, Adele, Vie de la venerable mere Barat, Fondatraice et Premiere Supérieure Générale de la Société du Sacré-Coeur de Jésus 2 vols. (Paris, 1884)Google Scholar; d’Ernemont, Madeleine, La Vie Voyageuse et Missionaire de la Révérende Mere Anna du Rousier (Paris, 1832)Google Scholar; Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, Life of the Vénénerable Madeleine Barat (New York, 1891)Google Scholar; Monahan, Maud, St. Madeleine Sophie, Foundress of the Society of the Sacred Heart, 1779-1865 (New York, 1925)Google Scholar; Callan, Louise, The Society of the Sacred Heart in North America (New York, 1937)Google Scholar; Virnot, Marie Thérèse (RSCJ) Le Charisme de Sainte Madeleine Sophie (Poitiers, 1975)Google Scholar; and Stuart, Janet Erskine, The Education of Catholic Girls (London, 1911)Google Scholar.

8 For Peru see Boletín de instrucción Pública (hereafter BIP) 1:6 1 (October 1877) and “Reglamento de la Escuela Normal de Mugeres, “ BIP II: 19 15 (April 1878), pp. 113-116.

9 El Ferrocarril, 22 July 1856.

10 Sesiones del Congreso Nacional (hereafter SCN) Diputados Ordinario, 14 June 1850.

11 For the most recent studies of the religious issue in Chilean political life see Serrano’s, Sol “La definición de lo público en el estado católico, el caso chileno, 1810-1885,” Estudios Públicos 76 (Spring 1999)Google Scholar, Serrano, Sol and Jaksic, Iván, “El poder de las palabras: la iglesia y el estado liberal ante la diffusion de la escritura en el Chile del siglo xix,” Historia 33 (2000), pp. 435–460 Google Scholar and Collier, Simon, “Religious Freedom, Clericalism and Anticlerical in Chile, 1820-1920,” in Helmstadter, R., Freedom and Religion in the Nineteenth Century (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997), pp. 302–338 Google Scholar; Vergara, Sergio, “Iglesia y Estado in Chile,” Revista Historia 20 (1985)Google Scholar. Other important treatments include Vallier, Ivan, Catholicism, Social Control, and Modernization in Latin America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970)Google Scholar; Dussel, Enrique, ed., The Church in Latin America 1492-1992 (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1992)Google Scholar, Chapter 8, “The Principal Stages in the History of the Church in Politically Neocolonial Latin America,” and his History of the Church in Latin America, Colonialism to Liberation (1492-1979), trans. Alan Neely (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1981), Chapter 7, “The Crisis in the Neocolonial States.”

12 Best introduction is Collier, pp. 303-306. Mecham, J. Lloyd, Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966)Google Scholar; Fleet, Michael and Smith, Brian H., The Catholic Church and Democracy in Chile and Peru (Notre Dame: University of Norte Dame Press, 1997), pp. 36–37 and 78-79Google Scholar. The Chilean Constitution of 1833 affirmed the patronato and the union between Church and state. Although Catholicism was not recognized as the official religion, civil rights were denied to other religions until 1864. Between 1824 and 1872 Peru had fifteen different constitutions all of which affirmed the union between Church and state, protected the Roman Catholic faith and forbade the practice of other religions.

13 Jeffery, Klaiber S.J., The Catholic Church in Peru, 1821-1985, A Social History (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1992), p. 16 Google Scholar. Klaiber discusses such practices as rooted in 16th Century Hispanic Catholicism.

14 For the full list see Actividades Femeninas en Chile (Santiago: Imprenta La Ilustración, 1928), pp. 304-366. Jeffrey Klaiber, The Catholic Church, A Social History. New research on gender suggests that in the nineteenth century elites subdivided into rival groups around a core of specific principles that were further subdivided by gender. Edwards, Lisa, “The Catholic Elite in Chile, 1860-1930,” MA thesis, Tulane University, 1998 Google Scholar.

15 Valenzuela, Erika Maza, “Liberals, Radicals and Women’s Citizenship in Chile, 1872-1930,” The Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies, Working Paper Series, Working Paper 245, November, 1997, pp. 2–3 Google Scholar. For a liberal approach to gender and citizenship for the same period see Ward, Ronda, “The Gendered Citizen, Women in Santiago, Chile, 1850-1925,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1997 Google Scholar.

16 Gazmuri, Cristian, El “48” chileno, iqualitarios, reformistas radicales, masones y bomberos (Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 1992)Google Scholar and Lira, Bernardino Bravo, “Una nueva forma de sociabilidad en Chile a mediados del siglo XIX: Los primeros partidos políticos,” Formas de sociabilidad en Chile 1840-1940 (Santiago: Fundación Mario Góngara, 1992), pp. 11–34 Google Scholar.

17 Yeager, Gertrude M., ‘Female Apostolates and Modernization in Mid-Nineteenth Century Chile” The Americas 55:3 (January 1999), pp. 424–458 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

18 Erika Maza Valenzuela, “Catholicism, Anticlericalism and the Quest for Women’s Suffrage in Chile,” The Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies Working Paper Series, Working Paper 214 (December 1995) and “Liberals, Radicals, and Women’s Citizenship in Chile, 1872-1930, The Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies Working Paper Series, Working Paper 245 (November 1997). The evidence of close partnering between Church hierarchies and elite women exists in the writings of Jeffery Kaibler’s Social History of the Catholic Church cited in note 14. For Argentina, see Mead, Karen, “Gender, Welfare and the Catholic Church in Argentina: Conferencias De Señoras de San Vicente de Paul, 1890-1916,” The Americas 58 (2001), pp. 91–119 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Caimari, Lila M., “Whose Criminals are These? Church, State, and Patronatos and the Rehabilitation of Female Convicts (Buenos Aires, 1840-1940),” The Americas 54 (October 1997), pp. 185–208 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Deutsch, Sandra McGee, “The Catholic Church, Work, and Womanhood in Argentina, 1890-1930,” Gender and History 3 (Autumn 1991), pp. 304–25 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Derechas, Las, The Extreme Right in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, 1890-1930 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar. Also see González, Victoria and Kampwrith, Karen, eds., Radical Women in Latin America, Left and Right (University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), Chapters 7–10 Google Scholar.

19 See note 2. The most comprehensive recent work on Chilean public education and literary is Austin, Robert, The State, Literacy and Popular Education in Chile, 1964-1990 (New York: Lexington Books, 2003)Google Scholar.

20 Chilean nationalism is closely linked to the University of Chile and not to the extension of public primary schooling to ordinary Chileans, although the university supervised it. See Jaksic, Iván and Serrano, Sol, “In the Service of the Nation: The Establishment and Consolidation of the University of Chile, 1842-1879,” Hispanic American Historical Review 70 (1990), pp. 139–171 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Serrano’s, Sol “De la Academia a la especialización: La Universidad de Chile en el siglo XIX,” Opciones 13 (1988), pp. 9–34 Google Scholar; and Universidad y Nación, Chile en el siglo XIX (Santiago: Ed. Universitaria, 1994); and Yeager, Gertrude M., “Elite Education in Nineteenth Century Chile,” Hispanic American Historical Review 71 (1991), pp. 73–107 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 Anguita, Ricardo, Leyes promulgadas en Chile hasta el l de junio 1912 (Santiago, 1912)Google Scholar quoted in Silvert, and Reissman, , Education, Class and Nation, p. 112 Google Scholar and Esquivel, Graciela Ochoa, La educación particular en Chile durante el periodo 1810-1860 (Santiago, 1930)Google Scholar.

22 Two clauses of the 1833 Constitution established the teaching state:

Article 153. Public education is a preferential activity of the Government. The Congress shall formulate a general plan for national education; and the Minister of the respective office shall report annually on its state throughout the Republic.

Article 154. There shall be a superintendency of public education which shall be charged with the inspection of national education, and of its direction under the authority of the Government.

Did “public education” mean all education or only that directed by the state? See Anguita, Ricardo, Leyes promulgadas en Chile, quoted in Silvert and Reissman, Education, Class and Nation, p. 112 Google Scholar; and Esquivel, Graciela Ochoa, La educación particular en Chile durante el periodo 1810-1860 (Santiago, 1930)Google Scholar.

23 For an excellent review of Portales and the Church see Collier, Simon, “Religious Freedom,” pp. 303–306 Google Scholar.

24 For a good introduction to the French educational practices the Chileans adapted see McIntire, C. T., “Changing Religious Establishments and Religious Liberty in France Part I: 1787-1879,” in Helmstadter, Freedom and Religion in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 233–272 and 273-301Google Scholar.

25 Serrano, Universidad y Nación and Yeager, “Elite Education.”

26 Ochoa Esquivel, La educación particular.

27 Labarca, Historia de la enseñanza.

28 Carlson, Feminismo, and Little, Cynthia Jeffress, “Education, Philanthropy and Feminism: Components of Argentine Womanhood, 1860-1926,” in Lavrin, Asunción, ed., Latin American Women Historical Perspectives (New York, 1978)Google Scholar, and her “Moral Reform and Feminism,” Journal of Inter American Studies and World Affairs 17:4 (November 1975), pp. 386–97 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Yeager, Gertrude M., “Women and the Intellectual Life of Nineteenth Century Lima,” Revista Interamericana de Bibliografía XL:3 (1990), pp. 361–393 Google Scholar. The extension of educational opportunities for women generally accompanied the independence movements in southern South America. The Buenos Aires experiment was the most ambitious because it placed the direction and finance of female education under the authority of a women’s benevolent society. In Peru and Bolivia patriot governments established Colegios de Educandas in cities where girls were educated through the 1860s. The colegios offered secular education to daughters of patriots, war heroes and later to public employees. These schools, all modest enterprises, provided a generation of women writers, Clorinda Matto de Turner, Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera and Carolina Freyre de Jaimes with the only formal schooling they received. In the Río de la Plata the state established secular education for girls and trained teachers from the 1820s and placed the inspection of female schools in the hands of elite women. Bolivia also introduced Colegios de Educandas in 1840 and although no study exists the necessary documents are located in Ministry of Interior files in the Archivo Nacional located in Sucre.

29 Martel, Alamiro de Avila, Mora y Bello en Chile (1829-1831) (Santiago, 1982)Google Scholar.

30 Labarca, Historia de la enseñanza.

31 Intendencia de Atacama 98, 21 January 1853 and Ministerio de Instrucción Pública (hereafter MIP), 1856; Ochoa Esquivel, La educación particular.

32 Anales de la Universidad de Chile VII (1848), hereafter Anales.

33 Anales 12 (1853).

34 Anales 19 (1861), p. 404. The percentage of children attending school varied greatly between urban and rural districts.

35 For a review of the Sacristan Affair see Collier, , “Religious Freedom in Chile,” pp. 306–308 Google Scholar. Also see Avila, Julio Ritamal, Monseñor Manuel Vicuña Lorrain, 1840-1843, primer arzobispo de Santiago (Santiago, 1981)Google Scholar; and Maximiliano Salinas Campos, El laicado católico de la Sociedad Chilena de Agricultura y Beneficencia 1838-1849 (Santiago: Universidad Católica de Chile, 1980)Google Scholar. The attack on the Catholic Church’s monopoly in Europe and elsewhere became a major concern of Pius IX; see McIntire, C. T., “Changing Religious Establishments and Religious Liberty in France, Part I,” pp. 265–269 Google Scholar, and Pesce, Antonio Rehbein, “La Revista Católica, 150 años de historia y de servicio ecclesial,” Anuario de Historia de la Iglesia en Chile 11 (1993), pp. 11–26 Google Scholar.

36 For the French plan Montt adapted see McIntire, C.T., “Changing Religious Establishments and Religious Liberty in France, Part I,” pp. 265–269 Google Scholar.

37 y Manero, Vicente Martin, Historia Eclesiástica de Valparaíso (Valparaíso, 1890), 2 tomos, Vol. 2, p. 276 Google Scholar; Avila, Julio Ritamal, Monseñor Rafael Valentín Valdivieso 1848-1878, segundo arzobispo de Santiago (Santiago, 1981)Google Scholar; Maximiliano Salinas Campos, Historia del pueblo de Dios en Chile (Santiago: Ediciones Rehue, 1987)Google Scholar; and Atuñez, Rodolfo Vergara, “Biografía, vida i obras Ilmo, i Rmo. Señor don Rafael Valentín Valdivieso y Zañartu, segundo arzobispo de Santiago de Chile,” Anales LXVIII (1885), pp. 407–1185 Google Scholar.

38 See SCN (Senado) 1858,20 July 1858, for a spirited debate about the suppression of religious education in primary public schools. See the speech of Senator Gallo of Valparaiso who claimed Church inspection violated the spirit of liberty of education, SCN (Senado) 1858, 20 July 1858. Other participants in this debated wanted to suppress teaching the catechism altogether in primary schools.

39 SCN (Diputados), 21 June 1860.

40 The Church objected to the scientific content of public education. History would offer secular explanations for eras such as the Reformation while religion would be reduced to myth. In later decades the Church objected to the graded school because it employed the inductive method and produced skepticism. It opposed physical education because it led to the cult of the body as seen in ancient Greece. The Church argued against free public schooling because it feared competition with schools funded by the state and it lobbied against obligatory education on the grounds that it interfered with parental authority. See Fleischmann, Trinidad Cruz, “La laización de la educación vista desde la perspectiva de la Iglesia católica,” Tesis, Universidad Católica-Valparaíso, 1988.Google Scholar

41 Silvert, and Reissman, , Education, Class and Nation, p. 128 Google Scholar.

42 Montt, Manuel, Discursos, papeles de gobierno i correspondencia de Don Manuel Montt, ed. Luís Montt Montt, 2 volumes, (Santiago, 1982), I, p. 207 Google Scholar.

43 Montt, Discursos, I, 294-95 and SCN (Diputados) 15, 19 and 22 October 1849.

44 Silvert, and Reissman, , Education, Class and Nation and William Walter Sywak, “Values in Nineteenth-Century Chilean Education: The Germanic Reform of Chilean Public Education, 1865-1910,” Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA, 1977 Google Scholar.

45 SCN (Senado), 10 September 1860.

46 MIP 40, 18 August 1856 is a list of graduating midwives and their destinations. Also see MIP 78, 30 April 1857; 11 May 1857, and 23 May 1857. Also see MIP 54, 2 and 6 September 1856, and MIP 85, 21 January 1858 and throughout.

47 SCN (Senado), 11 July 1853.

48 SCN (Senado), 11 July 1853.

49 SCN (Diputados), 23 November 1866.

50 SCN (Senado), 12 June 1850 and 13 July 1853.

51 SCN (Senado), 13 July 1853 and 12 June 1850.

52 Ochoa Esquivel, La educación particular.

53 Valdivieso, Ana Maria Aguirre, “La formación social de la mujer adquerido a atraves del colegio particular católica,” Tesis, Universidad Católica de Chile, 1956 Google Scholar; and Recuerdos de media centuria 1849-1899. Colegio de los Sagradas Corazones de Jésus y María (Santiago, 1899); Actividades femeninas.

54 SCN (Senado), 13 July 1853; see also Historia de la congregación de las religiosas de los Sagadras Corozones de Jesús y María (Santiago, 1909)Google Scholar; and Sor María del Carmen Pérez Walker, SSCC, Congregación de las Sagradas Corazones de Jésus y Maria, las religiosas, 1838-1963 (Santiago, 1963)Google Scholar.

55 MIP 45, 5 January 1854 p. 1 and Archivo de los Religiosas de la Sagrada Corazon, Calle Guillermo Franck 103, Santiago; Journal de la Maison de Santiago, 1853-1877, hereafter cited as ARSCJ-JM.

56 ARSCJ-JM 1853.

57 Manuel Montt, Discursos, Volume 1, introduction.

58 SCN (1861), 1 June 1861. In his last address as president Montt reported his administration had increased the number of primary schools for girls from 30 in 1852 to 139 and the enrollment had increased from 1,200 to 6,400 in the eight-year period.

59 BLODG (Santiago), 5 January 1854.

60 Nieto and Pabla Soleda, members of the first class of normalistas were orphans with jenios vivos, and required someone to accompany them to their school; see MIP 64, 20 January 1858 and throughout. See MIP correspondence between RSCJ and Ministry for lists of expulsions, and MIP throughout.

61 Silvert and Reissman, Education, Class and Nation.

62 Recavarren, Margarita María, “Los primeros cincuenta años de la Escuela Normal de Mujeres y su rol en el panorama educative nacional,” Tesis, Universidad de San Marcos, 1974 Google Scholar, Chapter entitled “Vida en el internado 1878-1907.”

63 MIP 45, 5 January 1854.

64 MIP 136, 14 January 1869.

65 MIP 136; see “Resultados generales de las examines para la admisión de las alumnas de la Escuela Normal de Preceptoras, 1863-1870.”

66 MIP 64, 14 March 1854.

67 MIP 136, 6 September 1872.

68 The Pinochet government renovated La Maestranza and it is presently the headquarters of CEMA located on Avda. Portugal. The Chilean RSCJ abandoned completely elite female education after Vatican II and minister to the poor exclusively. The female normal school built as part of the German Reform is the present Museo Pedagògico located on Companía in downtown Santiago.

69 MIP 529, 11 November 1884.

70 MIP 45, 5 January 1854.

71 MIP 136, 8 November 1867.

72 MIP 136, 12 April 1876.

73 Suarez, José Bernardo, Rasgos biográficos de mujeres célebres de América (Santiago, 1868)Google Scholar and Biográficos de niños célebres (Santiago, 1867).

74 MIP 136, 20 March 1863.

75 Lists of approved textbooks appeared periodically in the Anales; see for example 1876, p. 543.

76 In the city of Santiago this system produced the following salary structure in 1857; MIP 73, 14 April 1857:

77 Figures calculated on data from MIP 152, 10 May 1867, 25 May 1871, and May 1876.

78 Silvert, and Reissman, , Education, Class and Nation, p. 114 Google Scholar; and Ministerio de Educación Pública, Sarmiento, , Director de la Escuela Normal, 1842-1845 (Santiago, 1942)Google Scholar.

79 Silvert, and Reissman, , Education, Class and Nation, p. 114 Google Scholar and Sarmiento, Director de la Escuela Normal.

80 Swyak, , “Values” and Labarca’s Historia de enseñanza, p. 123 Google Scholar.

81 When in 1848 the French government criticized the RSCJ for poor teaching, it opened a normal school to guarantee its teachers met the standards of the University of Paris; see Weber, Eugen, Peasants into Frenchmen, The Modernization of Rural France (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976)Google Scholar, Chapter 18, and Williams, , St. Madeleine Sophie, p. 470 Google Scholar.

82 O’Leary, , Education with Tradition, pp. 149–160 Google Scholar.

83 Williams, , St. Madeleine Sophie, p. 472 Google Scholar.

84 MIP 136, 31 August 1869.

85 Recaverran, “Vida.”

86 MIP 136, 8 April 1865.

87 MIP 136, 31 August 1869.

88 Lettres Annuelles de la Société du Sacré Coeur de Jésus (Paris, 1839-1985), 1854.Google Scholar

89 Quoted in Keppel, L., Anne Du Rousier, Religious of the Sacred Heart and Missioner to South America 1806-1880 (Westminster, MD, 1947), p. 80 Google Scholar.

90 Thomas, Maria Sims, “El desarrollo de la clase media en Chile en el siglo XIX,” Tesis, Universidad de Chile, 1962 Google Scholar; and Leon, Cesar A., “Las capas medias en la sociedad chilena del siglo XIX,” Anales (October-December, 1964)Google Scholar.

91 MIP 64, 30 December 1858.

92 MIP 85, 19 March 1860, Informe a Vista de ENPa de RSCJ.

93 White, , Frost in May, p. 17 Google Scholar.

94 Föster B., Matilde, Eran otros tiempos: los colegios de Juanita Fernández (Santiago: Ediciones Patris, 1996)Google Scholar; White, , Frost in May; and Mary McCarthy, Memories of a Catholic Girlhood (New York, 1957)Google Scholar.

95 AL 1856-1858, p. 418.

96 Williams, Margaret, Mother du Rousier, South American Foundress (New York, 1946)Google Scholar; Ke;ppel, L., Rousier, Anne Du, and Heffern, Mother Julia, “The Foundations of the Society of the Sacred Heart in Chile, “ Mid-America 17:4 (October 1935), pp. 221–236 Google Scholar; RSCJ, “La primera fundación del Sagrado Corazen en America de Sur,” Santiago de Chile: s/f mimeo can be found in the congregration’s Santiago archive.

97 Stuart, Education.

98 Stuart, Education.

99 O’Leary, Education with Tradition, p. 65; Monahan, St. Madeleine, pp. 62-68; and Stuart, Education.

100 Recavarren, “Vida.”

101 Recavarren, “Vida.”

102 Sadoux, Dominique and Gervais, Pierre, La vie religieuse: premières Constitutions des religieuses de la Société du Sacré-Coeur: texte et commentaire (Paris: Beauchesne, 1986), p. 3 Google Scholar.

103 Williams, Margaret, Mother du Rousier; Keppel, Anne Du Rousier and Heffern, “The Foundations of the Society of the Sacred Heart in Chile,” 221–236 Google Scholar; RSCJ, “La primera fundación del Sagrado Corazon en America de Sur;” Santiago de Chile: s/f mimeo can be found in the Congregation’s Santiago archive. For Peru, see Diario de la Casa del Sagrado Corazon (San Pedro: Escuela Normal 1877-1897).Google Scholar

104 Recavarren, “Vida.”

105 Stuart, Education; Williams, St. Madeleine Sophie; O’Leary, Education; and Sadoux and Gervais, , La vie, pp. 7–9 Google Scholar.

106 Feminist theologians see women like Barat as “feminist heroes,” see Weaver, Mary Jo, “The Most Adventurous of Nuns: Ursulines and the Future,” Review for Religious 52:4 (July-August 1993), pp. 486–502, 498 Google Scholar; and Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler, Jesus Miriam’s Child, Sophia’s Prophet, Critical Issues in Feminist Christology (New York, 1994)Google Scholar.

107 Kane, Paula, Separatism and Subculture, Boston Catholicism 1900-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994)Google Scholar and Janne Haaland Matlary, “Commentary: Catholic Feminism vs. Equality Feminism,” http://www.ewtn.com/library/ISSUES/CATHFEMHTM.

108 Stuart, Education.

109 AL 1854.

110 Recavarren, “Vida.”

111 Some of the rituals include gouter, cache-cache, congé, ribbons, five minutes, little words, ranks, and the triple judgment on the week just lived: très bien, bien, and assez bien.

112 Class time in the morning was between 8 and noon with a recess. After lunch, classes continued until 7:30. Saturday classes ended at noon after which the students returned to clean their dormitory and study. Saturday was also assembly day when demerits and awards for behavior were distributed. Social life consisted of conferences, musical and theatrical performances. See Recavarren,“Vida en el Internado.”

113 Recavarren, “Vida,” p. 87.

114 For a discussion of the war between clericalism and anticlericalism, see Collier’s “Religious Freedom.” Women’s education became an important political topic in Chile in the 1870s. The historiographical focus has been extending secondary and university education to women. Public secondary schooling and admission to the University of Chile was extended to women in 1877. Peru allowed women to attend the Universidad de San Marcos in 1908 and in 1928 opened public secondary schools for women, but the training of women secondary school teachers remained in the hands of the RSCJ.

115 Bunkley, Allison Williams, The Life of Sarmiento (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952)Google Scholar; and Sarmiento, Domingo, Las Escuelas: Base de la prosperidad i de la república en los Estados Unidos; Informe al Ministro de Instrucción Pública en la República Argentina (New York: Appleton, 1866)Google Scholar.

116 Ortiz, Pedro Pablo, Principios fundamentales sobre educación popular (Publicado por el orden del MIP) (New York: Appleton, 1866)Google Scholar.

117 Horvath, Sandra Ann, “Victor Duruy and the Controversy over Secondary Education for Girls,” French Historical Studies 9 (1975), pp. 85–104 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilkins, Wynona H., “The Debate over Secondary and Higher Education for Women in Nineteenth-Century France,” North Dakota Historical Review (Winter 1981), pp. 11–25 Google Scholar; and Rebecca Rogers, “Constructing French Womanhood over the Seas.”

118 Revista de Instrucción Primaría, Santiago 1:3 1 November 1866 Google Scholar.

119 Revista de Instrucción Primaría 1: IV 1 (December 1866)Google Scholar.

120 Smith, Bonnie G., Ladies of the Leisure Class, The Bourgeoises of Northern France in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981)Google Scholar.

121 Erika Maza Valenzuela, Catholicism, Anticlericalism and the Quest for Women’s Suffrage in Chile, The Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies, Working Paper Series, Working Paper 214 (December 1995), also published as “Catolicismo, anticlericalismo y la extensión del sufragio a la mujer en Chile,” Estudios Públicos 58 (Fall 1995)Google Scholar.

122 MIP 223.

123 “Comisión de señoras vistadoras,” Boletín de la Comisión Visitadora de Escuelas de Santiago (October 1870), p. 166 Google Scholar.

124 SCN (Diputados), 11 November 1867.

125 SCN (Diputados), 1868, 347.

126 BLODG, 27 January 1869.

127 SCN (Diputados), 16 and 19 December 1870.

128 SCN (Diputados), 12 December, 1871. The commission was composed of Domingo Arteaga Alemparte, José Tocornal, Ramon Barros Luco, Domingo Fernández Concha and Pedro Luís Cuadra.

129 MI 61, 10 November 1861.

130 MIP 62, 28 July and 21 December 1855.

131 MIP 104, 22 February 1861.

132 MIP 99, 3 September 1877.

133 Boletín de la Juntas de Vistadoras, 5:20 (April 1872).

134 MIP 222, 25 February 1871.

135 MIP 222, 25 February 1871.

136 MIP 222, 25 February 1871 and 3 August 1871.

137 MIP 268, 4 July 1874 and 24 October 1874. Cervello had reason to complain because her salary was lowered and the student pension of ten pesos was too low. The cost of living was higher in la Serena than either Chilian or Santiago. See MIP 268, 16 October and 3 December 1874.

138 MIP 300, 15 April 1875.

139 MIP 319, 9 December 1876.

140 MIP 342, 2 August 1877.

141 MIP 332, 9 January 1877.

142 MIP 407, 27 February 1880.

143 Fogg, Stephen, “Positivism in Chile and its Impact on Education Development and Economic Thought,” Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1976, p. 68 Google Scholar; Auguste Comte, Catéchisme Positiviste (Rio de Janeiro, 1957) and Lagarrigue, Juan Enrique, Carta sobre la religión de la humanidad, dirigida a la señora doña Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera (Santiago, 1892)Google Scholar; and Segunda carta a la señora doña Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera (Santiago, 1894)Google Scholar.

144 de Hostos, Jose María, “La educación científica de la mujer,” Obras completas de Hostos, ed. conmemorativa del gobierno de Puerto Rico, 1839-1939 (Havana, Cuba, 1939), 20 vols.Google Scholar; Forjando de Porvenir America, tomo I, pp. 7-65.

145 Hostos, “Educación científica de la mujer.”

146 Hostos, “Educación científica de la mujer.”

147 Hostos, “Educación científica de la mujer.”

148 Hostos, “Educación científica de la mujer,” and Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class.

149 See MI throughout. It was common practice from the 1840s for elite women to organize themselves into charitable organizations and by 1880s each town had such an organization. The composition of the various female boards can be found in their correspondence to the Minister of Interior in the Beneficiencia section.

150 Stephen Fogg, “Positivism in Chile,” Chapter 3.

151 Borgoño, Martina Barros, “La esclavitud de la mujer,” Revista de Santiago, 1872-1873, III: 1 pp. 133–144, 492-508, and 499Google Scholar.

152 Borgoño, Martina Barros, “La esclavitud de la mujer,” p. 501 Google Scholar. Changes in home architecture and the consumption habits of the emerging bourgeoisie have supplied scholars with material evidence that family life was evolving; see also Villalobos, Sergio, Origen y Ascenso de la Burguesía Chilena (Santiago, 1987)Google Scholar. Parlors became larger and more comfortable, billiard rooms were added and men increasing used their homes as social space where family and friends gathered. See additionally Brunner, Jose and Catalán, Gonzalo, eds., Cinco Estudios Sobre Cultura y Sociedad, Cultura y Crisis de Hegemonía (Santiago, 1986)Google Scholar. The classic structure of the patriarchal family begin to erode as bourgeois domesticity with its clearly defined roles and spheres of action for women, became more prevalent; see Jenves, Carmen Gloria Gajardo, “Magdalena Vicuña: una mujer del siglo xix,” Tesis, Universidad de Chile, 1989 Google Scholar; and Hernandez N., María Elena, “Parentesco y afectividad familiar en el siglo xix,” Tesis, Universidad de Chile, 1989 Google Scholar; and Goich, Lorena Loyola, “Mujer, matrimonio y familia en el siglo xix atraves del epistolario,” Tesis, Universidad de Chile, 1988 Google Scholar.

153 Borgoño, Martina Barros, “La esclavitud de la mujer,” p. 507 Google Scholar.

154 Valenzuela, Erika Maza, Working Paper 214, pp. 21–22 Google Scholar.

155 The best single source on the subject of positivism and education is Stephen Lockhart Fogg, “Positivism in Chile.” See also Lagarrigue, Fernando Pinto, La Masonería,(Santiago, 1960)Google Scholar; Diaz, Emilio Moyano, “Presentación de un pensador chileno: Valentín Letelier Madariaga, “ Pensamiento en Chile 1830-1910 (Santiago, 1987), pp. 107–124 Google Scholar, argues that masonry provided the route to secular thought for intellectuals of Letelier’s generation; see also Lipp, Solomon, Three Chilean Thinkers (Waterloo, Ontario, 1975)Google Scholar; and Fogg, “Positivism in Chile,” Chapter 2.

156 See articles in El Ferrocarril and El Atacama, 26 September 1877, which that attribute strikes to faulty workers’ education; as well as Fogg, “Positivism in Chile,” Chapters 2 and 3. See also Tironi, Ximena Cruzart y Ana, “El pensamiento frente a la cuestión social en Chile, “Pensamiento en Chile 1830-1910 (Santiago, 1987), pp. 127–151 Google Scholar; and Escuela Nocturna de Artesanos, Conferencias públicas dadas por el cuerpo de profesores en el año de 1874 (Santiago, 1875)Google Scholar.

157 For a discussion of anticlericalism in Chilean politics see Collier, , “Religious Freedom in Chile,” pp. 325–332 Google Scholar, El Ferrocarril, 19 January 1875.

158 BLODG (1884), 21 February 1884; and Sywak, William Walter, “Values in Nineteenth-Century Chilean Education: The Germanic Reform of Chilean Public Education, 1865-1910,” Ph.D. Dissertation UCLA, 1977, p. 89 Google Scholar.

159 BLODG (1883), 11 October 1883, p. 930.

160 Sywak, “Values,” Chapter 4.

161 MIP 424 Berlin, 1 August 1883.

162 MIP 424 Berlin, 1 August 1883.

163 The contracts appear in MIP 552.

164 BLODG (1884), 21 February 1884, p. 218.

165 ARSCJ-Journal de la Casa, 1880-1886; see entries for 14 January 1886, 2 February 1885, 20 January 1884, 12 August 1884, 16 January 1883, 10 and 19 September 1882, and 23 February 1882.

166 Armand and Michele Mattelart, La mujer chilena en una nueva sociedad (Santiago: Editorial del Pacífico, 1968), quoted in Elsa Chaney, Supermadre (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978), p. 37.