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Recent Developments in Political Geography, I*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 September 2013

Richard Hartshorne
Richard Hartshorne
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota
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The border position of geography between the natural and the social sciences is fairly generally recognized. Concerned primarily with differences in the different areas of the world, geography studies both natural and cultural features. In some universities, it is included among the natural sciences, in others among the social sciences. In England and America, geographers have particularly cultivated that portion of their field which leads naturally into economics, i.e., economic geography. Much less attention has been paid to the relations with history, although various geographers and historians have studied what has variously been called historical geography or geographic history. Even less have geographers in the English-speaking countries concerned themselves with that portion of their subject which bears upon the political areas of the world. The territorial problems of the war and postwar period, however, stimulated activity in this field both in England and America, the most notable product of which is Bowman's The New World, consisting in large part of the materials gathered for the American Commission to the Peace Conference.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 29 , Issue 5 , October 1935 , pp. 785 - 804
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 1935

References

1 Bowman, Isaiah, The New World: Problems in Political Geography (Chicago, 1921, 4th ed., 1928Google Scholar). Dr. Bowman was chief territorial adviser and executive officer of the Section of Territorial, Economic, and Political Intelligence.

2 In the most detailed of these, Bowman, Isaiah, Geography in Relation to the Social Sciences (Part V of the Rept., Comm. on Soc. Stud., Amer. Hist. Assoc., New York, 1934), political geography is discussed in ten pages (pp. 205–215)Google Scholar, with almost no bibliography. In Sauer's, Carl chapter on “Cultural Geography” in Recent Developments in the Social Sciences (Phila. and London, 1927), three pages are devoted to this branch of the field (pp. 207–210)Google Scholar, chiefly criticisms, in part justified but based on an evidently very limited survey. In Brunhes', Jean chapter on “Human Geography” in History and Prospects of the Social Sciences (H. E. Barnes, ed., New York, 1925), the discussion of political geography, pp. 71–74, 101–102Google Scholar, is limited almost entirely to a consideration of one book, that of Brunhes and Vallaux. (Cf. Sauer's comments on Brunhes' treatment of his subject). In the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, political geography appears only in a short paragraph under “Political Science” in which only Ratzel and Kjellén are mentioned. (For contrast, see “Politische Geographie” in the Staatslexicon, or the Politisches Handwörterbuch.)

3 A small exception is offered in the utilization of recent work of German students on the geography of political boundaries, in my “Geographic and Political Boundaries in Upper Silesia,” Annals Assoc. Amer. Geog., Dec., 1933, pp. 195–228Google Scholar.

4 That the Germans should be particularly interested in the subject since the War is obvious, but they have always shown more interest in it than has any other group. The environmental reasons for this, as well as for the lack of interest in this country, are discussed by Whittlesey, Derwent in “Environment and the Student of Human Geography,” Scientific Monthly, 1932, pp. 265–267Google Scholar.

5 The references in the footnotes provide a considerable up-to-date bibliography, not readily available elsewhere. The largest bibliography, including references to over 700 writers and fairly complete through 1924, is given in the footnotes of Maull, Otto, Polilische Geographie (Berlin, 1925), especially pp. 703–710Google Scholar. Bowman, , The New World, pp. 747–775Google Scholar, presents also a very large bibliography of a different sort, consisting chiefly of references to materials in economic geography, history, politics, etc., of value for the study of different countries. The writer regrets that he is limited to the literature in English, French, and German. In none of the bibliographies studied are there more than one or two important titles in any other modern language, though Haushofer speaks, in passing, of “prominent students of Geopolitik in Fascist Italy.”

6 For a detailed discussion of the development of political geography, see Maull, op. cit., pp. 1–30.

7 In his discussion of geography, Immanuel Kant provides for a political geography “founded entirely on physical geography.” “Kant's Physiche Geographie,” Philos. Bibl., B.A. 51, 2 Aufl. (Leipzig, 1904), p. 17Google Scholar (after Maull).

8 At least one of these hypotheses is of special interest in comparison with certain current theories. The Arab historian, Ibn Chaldun, held that the fourth temperature zone, of the seven zones of the Arab geographers, was the most favorable for civilization, as shown by the lands included in it—those of the Arabs, Romans, Persians, Jews, Greeks, Hindus, and Chinese. Maull, op. cit., p. 8.

9 Two non-geographers, a French historian, Febvre, and an American sociologist, Franklin Thomas, have made excellent detailed studies of the development of thought in this field, though Febvre's study was in fact written about 1914 and Thomas was not acquainted with the recent work in Germany. Both writers give somewhat exaggerated impressions of the importance of this aspect of geography in the general field, since neither is familiar with more recent developments. Lucien Febvre, , La terre et l'évolution humaine (in the series “L'Évolution de l'Humanité,” 2d. ed., Paris, 1924)Google Scholar, trans, as A Geographical Introduction to History (in the series “The History of Civilization,” New York, 1925)Google Scholar; Thomas, Franklin, The Environmental Basis of Society; A Study in the History of Sociological Thought (New York, 1925)Google Scholar.

10 The dates are those of the first publications of the respective writers in this field. Titles of these and a number of similar works may be found in the bibliography in Thomas, op. cit., pp. 317–329. Two have recently been republished: George, Hereford B., The Relations of Geography and History (rev. and enl. by Howarth, and Fawcett, , Oxford, 1924)Google Scholar; Semple, Ellen C., American History and Its Geographic Conditions (rev. by Jones, C. F., Boston, 1933)Google Scholar. Mackinder enlarged upon his earlier papers, notably “The Geographical Pivot of History” (Geog. Jour., April, 1904)Google Scholar, in which Haushofer finds much of the world history of 1914–24 correctly predicted, in Democratic Ideals and Reality (London, 1919)Google Scholar.

11 Fairgrieve, James, Geography and World Power (London, 1915, 1921)Google Scholar; Cornish, V., The Great Capitals; An Historical Geography (London and New York, 1922)Google Scholar; Kermack, W. R., Human Environment and Progress; The Outline of World Historical Geography (chiefly the British Isles) (Edinburgh and London, 1927)Google Scholar, and two previous studies of Scotland and the British Empire; Semple, Ellen C., Geography of the Mediterranean Region: Its Relation to Ancient History (New York, 1931)Google Scholar; Wright, J. K., The Geographical Basis of European History (New York, 1928)Google Scholar. To these should be added the study of this continent by the English geographer, Jones, Rodwell, Part I of Jones, Ll. R. and Bryan, P. W., North America; An Historical Economic, and Regional Geography (New York, 1924)Google Scholar, and especially Paullin, C. O. (Wright, J. K., ed.), Atlas of the Historical Geography of the United States (New York, 1932)Google Scholar, abstract by Wright, : “Sections and the National Growth,” Geog. Rev., 1932, pp. 353–360Google Scholar.

12 Of Ellsworth Huntington's many publications, the most significant in this connection are World Power and Evolution (New Haven, 1919)Google Scholar, and two studies of the geography of Biblical history: Palestine and Its Transformation (Boston, 1911)Google Scholar and Chaps. XII–XVII in The Pulse of Progress, Including a Sketch of Jewish History (New York, 1926)Google Scholar.

13 Aside from these well-known works, mention might be made of two early ones: Naumann, C. and Partsch, Josef, Physikalische Geographie von Griecherdand, mil besonderer Rücksicht auf das Altertum (Breslau, 1895), pp. 97 ffGoogle Scholar; Fischer, Theobald, “Die iberische Halbinsel,” in Kirkchhoff's, Länderkunde von Europa (Vienna, 1893)Google Scholar, Pt. 2, 2nd half; and of two more recent: Hettner, Alfred, Russland, eine geographische Betrachtung von Volk, Staat, und Kultur (Leipzig, 1916)Google Scholar; and Bowman, I., Desert Trails of Atacama (New York, 1924)Google Scholar, Chap. V.

14 Ratzel, Fr., Politische Geographie (Munich, 1897)Google Scholar; 2nd. ed. with additional title oder die Geographie der Staaten, der Verkehrs, und des Krieges, 1903; 3rd. ed. rev. with chapter on the historical development of the subject by E. Oberhummer, (Munich and Berlin 1923). In addition should be listed: Das Meer als Quelle der Völkergrösse (Munich, 1900)Google Scholar; Die Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika, Bd. 2. Politische Geographie (Munich, 1893)Google Scholar; and various special studies in Kleine Schriften, 2 vols. (Munich, 1906)Google Scholar.

15 Abstract by Schlüter, Otto in Z. Geo.f. Erdkunde (Berlin, 1898), pp. 126–140Google Scholar.

16 de la Blache, Vidal, “La geographie politique d'après les écrits de M. Fr. Ratzel,” abstract and rev. in Ann. de Geog. (March, 1898), pp. 97–111Google Scholar.

17 Ratzel, , “Le sol, la societé et l'état,” Année Sociol. 1898–1899Google Scholar.

18 See the preface to each of Vallaux, Camille, Geographie sociale: le mer (1908)Google Scholar, and Le sol et l'état (1911, Paris)Google Scholar.

19 Though in her great treatise which is derived in large part from his Anthropogeographie she devotes a chapter or so to political geography. Semple, E. C., Influences of Geographic Environment (New York, 1911)Google Scholar, Chap. III and parts of Chap. VII.

10 Schöne's, Emil little book was intended as “a popularization of the ideas of Ratzel,” Politische Geographie (Aus Natur- und Geisteswelt series, Leipzig, 1911)Google Scholar.

21 Nevertheless, Haushofer feels that the subject, as developed by Ratzel, Vallaux, and Mackinder, did have a notable influence on political thought and action in England and France—in the latter through the École de Politique—but unfortunately little or none in Germany. “Politische Erdkunde und Geopolitik,” in Freie Wege Vergleichender Erdkunde (Festgabe E. v. Drysgalski, Munich, 1925), pp. 94 ff.Google Scholar

22 Op. cit., p. 17. In the bibliography, pp. 369–379 (mostly French sources), and in that of Franklin Thomas, op. cit., pp. 317–329, are a considerable number of studies in this field by others than geographers. To these should be added Freeman, E. A., Historical Geography of Europe, 2 vols. with atlas (3rd ed. London, 1903)Google Scholar.

23 Brunhes, , “Human Geography,” in History and Prospects of the Social Sciences, pp. 100–101Google Scholar (according to Brunhes, Hettner stated this conclusion in the Geog. Z. for 1898Google Scholar); Barrows, Harlan H., “Geography as Human Ecology,” Annals Assoc. Amer. Geog., 1922, pp. 11–12Google Scholar; Suaer, op. cit., p. 200. Similar conclusions were expressed at a joint meeting of geographers and historians in England, reported in “What is Historical Geography?”, Geography (1932), pp. 39–45Google Scholar.

24 Turner, Frederick J., The Frontier in American History (New York, 1920)Google Scholar; The Significance of Sections in American History (New York, 1932)Google Scholar. In a quotation in the introduction to the latter, Turner, it seems to me, very clearly expresses the contrast between the position of an historian and that of a geographer: “The central interest of my [life] study has been that of these maps of population advance—not as a student of a region but of a process.”

25 Vogel, Walther, Das neue Europa und seine historisch-geographischen Grundlagen, 2 vols. (Bonn and Leipzig, 1921, 1925)Google Scholar; Politische Geographie (Leipzig, 1922)Google Scholar; Die Entstehung des modernen Weltstaatensystems (Weltpol. Bücherei, Berlin, 1929)Google Scholar.

26 In addition, the following were engaged in cartographic work or prepared other special materials: de Margerie and Gallois (France), Marinelli and Ricchieri (Italy), and Jefferson, Lobeck, and Martin (United States). Sieger, who alone of the list had been an active student of political geography, came to Paris with the Austrian delegation, but had, of course, no opportunity to take part in the work of the Conference. Likewise the material which Teleki sent from Hungary had little effect; he was for a short period prime minister of Hungary. The above list, prepared chiefly from correspondence with several of the Americans mentioned, is probably not complete.

27 Including Partsch, Penck, Krebs, Sapper, Volz, Solch, Teleki, Gallois, Holdich, and Lyde.

28 Hettner, Alfred, England's Weltherrschaft (Leipzig, 1915, revised 1928)Google Scholar; Wegener, G., Die geographische Ursachen des Weltkrieges (Berlin, 1920)Google Scholar, summarized in “Erdraum und Schicksal,” Z. f. Geopolitik, 1931, pp. 542–57Google Scholar; Mackinder, H. J., Democratic Ideals and Reality (London, 1919)Google Scholar; Demangeon, A., Le declin de l'Europe (Paris, 1920Google Scholar, trans, as America and the Race for World Dominion, New York, 1921)Google Scholar; Von Engeln, O. D., Inheriting the Earth; or the Geographical Factor in National Development (New York, 1922)Google Scholar.

29 Penck, , Über politische Grenzen (Rektoratsrede, Berlin, 1917)Google Scholar. (Only the theoretical discussion, the major part, is of value now; it is unfortunate that the applications suggested for Europe, given in an address made during the heat of the war, could not have been omitted in publication.) Supan's work will be noted later. For other work in political geography in Europe during this period, notably that of Fleure, Newbigin, Cvijić, and Teleki, see the full list in Joerg, W. L. G., “Recent Geographical Work in Europe,” Geog. Rev., 1922, pp. 431–784Google Scholar. In America, the most important—other than Bowman, The New World—were Dominian, Leon, The Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe (New York, 1917)Google Scholar, and Johnson's, Douglas studies in the special field of military geography: Topography and Strategy in the War (New York, 1917)Google Scholar, and Battlefields of the World War, 2 vols. (New York, 1921)Google Scholar.

30 Supan, Alexander, Leitlinien der allgemeinen politischen Geographie: Naturlehre des Staates (Berlin and Leipzig, 1918, 1922)Google Scholar; Dove, K., Allgemeine politische Geographie (Leipzig, 1920)Google Scholar; Vogel, Walther, Politische Geographie (Leipzig, 1922)Google Scholar; Dix, Arthur, Politische Geographie: Weltpolitisches Handbuch (Munich, 1922, 1923)Google Scholar; Maull, Otto, Politische Geographie (Berlin, 1925)Google Scholar.

31 “Without doubt it deserves a distinctly prominent place in the modern geographic literature.” Sölch, J., review in Geografiska Annaler, 1925, pp. 251–255Google Scholar. Other reviews by Sieger, in Geog. Z., 1926, p. 379Google Scholar, and Schlüter, in Geog. Anz., 1926, pp. 62–66Google Scholar.

32 For an appreciation, with full bibliography, see Sölch, J.: “Robert Sieger,” Geog. Z., 1927, pp. 305–313Google Scholar. Perhaps the most valuable single reference is “Zur politische-geographischen Terminologie,” Z. Ges. f. Erdkunde Berlin, 1917, pp. 497–529Google Scholar; 1918, pp. 48–69.

33 Obst, Erich, England, Europa, und die Welt: eine geopolitische-, weltwirtschaftliche Studie (Berlin, 1927)Google Scholar; Sölch, Johann, various articles on the Tyrol, including “The Brenner Region,” in Sociol. Review, Oct., 1927, pp. 1–17Google Scholar; Passarge, S., Ägypten und der Arabische Orient: eine politische-geographische Studie (Weltpol. Bücherei, Bd. 28, Berlin, 1931)Google Scholar. Special mention should be made of the cartographic work, as applied to political geography, in Volz, W. and Schwalm, H., Die deutsche Ostgrenze, Unterlagen zur Erfassung der Grenzzerreisungsschäden (Leipzig, 1927)Google Scholar, and Overbeck, H. and Saute, G. W., Saar-Atlas (Gotha, 1934)Google Scholar; see my review in Geog. Rev., Oct., 1934, pp. 680–682Google Scholar.

34 Formerly a regular officer of the German army, Haushofer's intention to transfer to academic life was postponed by the War to 1920, when he retired as a majorgeneral. Now professor at the University of Munich, his best work is on Japan, where he was stationed as military attaché in 1908–11. Haushofer, Karl, Dai Nihon: Betrachtungen über Gross-Japans Wehrkraft, Weltstellung und Zukunft (Berlin, 1913)Google Scholar; Das Japanische Reich in seiner geographischen Entwicklung (Vienna, 1921)Google Scholar; Japan und die Japaner, eine Landes- und Volkskunde (Leipzig, 1923, 1933)Google Scholar. For an appreciation of the work of this significant leader, see “Karl Haushofer, zum 60 Geburtstag,” Z. f. Geopolitik, 1929, pp. 709–725Google Scholar.

35 Rudolf Kjellén (1864–1922). For an appreciation of his work, see “Kjellén” (by Vogel, ) in Encyc. Soc. SciencesGoogle Scholar, or, in more detail, by Sieger, in Z. f. Geopolitik, 1924, pp. 339–346Google Scholar. Most important of his studies were: Stormakterna, 4 vols. (Stockholm, 1910–1914Google Scholar (trans. Die Grossmächte der Gegenwart, Leipzig, 1915, 22d ed.Google Scholar, ed. by Haushofer, K., Die Grossmächte vor und nach dem Weltkriege, Berlin and Leipzig, 1930)Google Scholar; Staten som lifsform (Stockholm, 1916Google Scholar, trans. Der Staat ah Lebensform, Berlin, 1917, 1924)Google Scholar; Grundriss zu einem System der Politik (Berlin, 1920)Google Scholar.

36 In addition to the work of Ratzel and Kjellén, Haushofer lays particular emphasis on Fairgrieve's study, op. cit., which he has had published in German (trans. by Martha Haushofer, his wife) with an introduction by himself: Fairgrieve, J., Geographie und Weltmacht, eine Einleitung in die Geopolitik (Berlin, 1925)Google Scholar.

37 Of the original group, Obst and Maull, formerly co-editors with Haushofer of the Zeitschrift, seem to have dropped out. Most prominent now are Lautenach, Albrecht Haushofer (son), and Baumann.

38 It is perhaps significant that Kurt Vowinckel, who is not only the publisher of the Zeitschrift für Geopolitik and nearly all the separate publications in Geopolitik, but is in a sense editor (Schriftleiter) of the periodical, is now the appointed head of the publishers' association of Germany. Haushofer, formerly honorary professor at the University of Munich, was in 1933 appointed a regular full (ordinarius) professor.

39 Demangeon, Albert, L'Empire britannique: étude de geographie coloniale (Paris, 1923)Google Scholar, trans, as The British Empire: A Study in Colonial Geography (New York and London, 1925Google Scholar, German trans., Berlin, 1926).

40 Brunhes, J. and Vallaux, C., La géographie de l'histoire: Géographie de la paix et de la guerre sur terre et sur mer (Paris, 1921)Google Scholar. Abstract and review by Johnson, Douglas, Geog. Rev., 1922, pp. 278–293Google Scholar. Mention may be made also of Brunhes, J. and Deffontaines, , “Géographie politique,” Pt. 3 of Giéographie humaine de la FranceGoogle Scholar (Vol. II of Hanotaux, G., Histoire de la nation française, Paris, 1926)Google Scholar.

41 Mackinder, H. J., “The Physical Basis of Political Geography,” Scott. Geog. Mag., VI (1890), p. 73 ff.Google Scholar; Democratic Ideals and Reality (London, 1919)Google Scholar; Cornish, Vaughan, The Great Capitals; An Historical Geography (London, 1922)Google Scholar, very largely political geography; Geography of Imperial Defense (London, 1922)Google Scholar; Fawcett, C. B., Frontiers; A Study in Political Geography (Oxford, 1918)Google Scholar; A Political Geography of the British Empire (London and New York, 1933)Google Scholar.

42 A number of American geologists have made important studies of problems concerned with the control and production of mineral resources, which are, in part at least, based on economic geography. These include books and articles, chiefly in Foreign Affairs, by Bain, Leith, Spur, and George Otis Smith. A large number are listed in Whitbeck, R. H. and Thomas, O. J., The Geographic Factor (New York, 1932), pp. 189–190, 207–209, 231–233Google Scholar.

43 For a discussion of changing concepts of geography, see Hettner, Alfred, Die Geographie; ihre Geschichte, ihr Wesen, und ihre Methoden (Breslau, 1927), pp. 73–109, 121–131Google Scholar; Febvre, op. cit., 1–67; Carl Sauer, “Recent Developments in Cultural Geography,” op. cit.; I. Bowman, Geography in Relation to the Social Sciences, Chap. 1; and “Geography” in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 6, pp. 621 ff.Google Scholar, sections by Sauer, Vallaux, and Sapper. Brunhes' chapter in History and Prospects of the Social Sciences contributes little beyond a detailed discussion of the points of view of Ratzel and Brunhes.

44 The two great critical studies of this type of geographic work, by Febvre and Thomas, have already been mentioned. Since those were published, there has appeared a significant successor to Miss Semple's great study which is much more moderate in its estimate of the importance of “geographic influences,” i.e., Whitbeck, Ray H. and Thomas, Olive J., The Geographic Factor; Its Rôle in Life and Civilization (New York, 1932)Google Scholar. This book is particularly valuable as a resumé of the work in English and American geography of the last quarter-century.

45 Op. cit., pp. 51–52.

46 Johnson, Douglas describes these differences in development in “The Geographic Prospect,” Annals Assoc. Amer. Geog. (1929), pp. 170–190Google Scholar.

47 “Ratzel does not attempt to explain all political phenomena from environment (aus dem Broden).” Schluter, Otto, rev. in Z. Ges. f. Erdkunde (Berlin, 1898), p. 126Google Scholar.

48 See Bowman's comment on Boas', criticism, Geography in Relation to the Social Sciences, p. 70Google Scholar; and Sauer's comment on Thomas' critique, in “Recent Developments in Cultural Geography,” op. cit., p. 170. It is particularly surprising that Thomas' chapter on “The Critics of Geographic Determinism” does not include a single critic from among the geographers themselves. Febvre's study suffers in this regard from having been published ten years after it was written.

49 Barrows, H. H., “Geography as Human Ecology,” in Annals Assoc. Amer. Geog., 1922, pp. 1–16Google Scholar; for a favorable response in England, see Roxby, P. M., “The Scope and Aims of Human Geography,” Brit. Assoc. Ad. Sc. (Sec. Bristol, E., 1930)Google Scholar; also published in Scot. Geog. Mag., 1930, pp. 276–290Google Scholar.

50 Le sol et l'état, pp. 7–8. Similarly in Brunhes and Vallaux, op. cit., pp. 24–25, 267.

51 Obst, Maull, and Lautensach, , Bausteine zur Geopolitik (Berlin, 1928)Google Scholar.

52 Op. cit., p. 13.

53 Ibid., p. 205.

54 Geog. Rev., 1927, pp. 511–512Google Scholar.

55 Op. cit., pp. 121–132. See also Sauer, op. cit., pp. 175–182.

56 Brunhes, Jean, La géographie humaine (Paris, 1910Google Scholar, trans, as Human Geography, Chicago, 1920), pp. 4, 13–27, 552 ff.Google Scholar; and his chapter in History and Prospects of the Social Sciences, pp. 55, 71, 101–102.

57 Similarly in Germany, Josef Partsch, both by precept and example. The precept is referred to in Brunhes, , Human Geography, p. 35nGoogle Scholar; by example is meant not only his Mitteleuropa (Central Europe in the Mackinder series), but particularly his Schlesien, eine Landeskunde für das deutsche Volk, 2 vols. (Breslau, 1896)Google Scholar. After detailed study in that region, I can agree thoroughly with Bowman's comment: “Still one of the best regional studies in the field of modern geography.”

58 Sauer classifies Herbertson simply as “an environmentalist” on the basis, apparently, of his Man and His Work (1899); but surely his later concept of “natural regions” is chorographic, and two of his students, using his notes, have prepared the first chorographic text-book in English on Europe: MacMunn, Nora E. and Coster, G., Europe; A Regional Geography (Oxford, 1924)Google Scholar.

59 Great Britain: Essays in Regional Geography, by 26 authors, edit, by Ogilvie, Alan G. (Cambridge, 1930)Google Scholar.

60 Sauer, Carl, “The Morphology of Landscape,” Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Geog., 1925, pp. 19–53Google Scholar; and the articles, previously cited, in Recent Developments in the Social Sciences and the Encycl. of the Social Sciences. As Sauer has noted in several places, Fenneman, in his presidential address in 1918, emphasized “the study of areas as the center of geography”: Fenneman, Nevin M., “The Circumference of Geography,” Annals Assoc. Amer. Geog., 1919, pp. 3–11Google Scholar.

61 The current view of many of these is reflected by James, Preston in “The Terminology of Regional Description,” Annals Assoc. Amer. Geog., July, 1934, pp. 78–86Google Scholar, in particular pp. 81–82.

62 Sölch, , in review in Geografiska Annaler, 1923, p. 323Google Scholar; Sauer, in Encycl. Soc. Sciences, Vol. 6, p. 621Google Scholar.

63 Op. cit., p. 122.

64 Kant's Werke (pub. by Schubert and Rosenkranz), Bd. 2, pp. 425 ffGoogle Scholar. (after Hettner, op. cit., p. 115).

65 “Recent Developments in Cultural Geography,” op. cit., p. 186.

66 Sauer, in Encyc. Soc. Sciences.

67 Op. cit., pp. 128–129.

68 Ibid., pp. 129–130. This limitation protects Hettner from going so far afield as does Banse, who, starting from a definition that includes the spiritual character of the population of an area, is carried into a detailed discussion of what he calls “Seelengeographie des Krieges,” in which the races and peoples of the world are divided into war-like and pacifistic, and nice distinctions are made between the fighting quality of troops from Upper and Lower Saxony. Banse, Ewald, Raum und Volk im Weltkriege, Gedanken über eine nationale Wehrlehre (Oldenburg, 1932)Google Scholar. Banse's more recent work in Wehrlehre has been a matter of some international concern.

69 Preston James recognizes this definitely, loc. cit.

70 Passarge, S., “Wesen, Aufgaben, und Grenzen der Landshaftskunde,” Petermann's Mit., Ergänz. Heft. 209, 1930, pp. 29–44Google Scholar; de la Blache, Vidal, Principes de géographie humaine (Paris, 1922Google Scholar, trans, as Principles of Human Geography, New York, 1926), esp. pp. 3–24Google Scholar.

71 de la Blache, Vidal, “Les caractères distinctifs de la géographie,” Annales de Geog., 1913, p. 299Google Scholar.

72 Op. cit., p. 218.

73 Sauer, ‘Recent Developments in Cultural Geography,” op. cit., p. 208.

74 Maull, op. cit., p. 726. His final claim may be added: “The state is, in the final analysis, a form in the Kulturlandschaft, and its scientific treatment stands therefore at the focus of modern geography.” See also Hettner, op. cit., pp. 145–146.

75 In his review of Maull's, Politische Geographie, Geog. Anz., 1926, pp. 62–66Google Scholar. Maull replies in the same volume, pp. 245–253.

76 Human Geography, pp. 543–568.

77 Brunhes, , in History and Prospects of the Social Sciences, p. 55Google Scholar.

78 Ibid., pp. 101 ff.

79 Brunhes, , Human Geography, p. 552Google Scholar.

80 Brunhes and Vallaux, op. cit., p. 484. (For the individual responsibility for different chapters, see preface.) Note also Banse's “Seelengeographie des Krieges,” footnote 66.

81 Brunhes, , in History and Prospects of the Social Sciences, p. 73Google Scholar.

82 Hettner, op. cit., pp. 129–132, 145–146, 251. Even Sauer half-recognizes the validity of such a field (more than is here intended), “possibly to be considered as the full regional expression of the political landscape, since it is essentially regional.” Op. cit., p. 210.

83 Passarge, S., “Aufgaben und Methoden der Politische Geographie,” in Z. f. Politik, 1931, p. 444Google Scholar.

84 Vogel, , Politische Geographie, pp. 6–7Google Scholar.

85 Op. cit., p. 44.

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