Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-01T03:21:31.298Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Party Policy Diffusion

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2016

TOBIAS BÖHMELT ,
LAWRENCE EZROW ,
RONI LEHRER  and
HUGH WARD
TOBIAS BÖHMELT*
Affiliation:
ETH Zurich and University of Essex
LAWRENCE EZROW*
Affiliation:
University of Essex
RONI LEHRER*
Affiliation:
University of Mannheim
HUGH WARD*
Affiliation:
University of Essex
*
Tobias Böhmelt is Research Associate, ETH Zürich, and Reader, University of Essex, Department of Government, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom ([email protected]).
Lawrence Ezrow is Professor, University of Essex, Department of Government, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom ([email protected]).
Roni Lehrer is Post-Doctoral Researcher, University of Mannheim, Collaborative Research Center SFB 884: Political Economy of Reforms, L13, 17, 68131 Mannheim, Germany ([email protected]).
Hugh Ward is Professor, University of Essex, Department of Government, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom ([email protected]).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Do parties learn from or emulate parties in other political systems? This research develops the argument that parties are more likely to employ the heuristic of learning from and emulating foreign successful (incumbent) parties. Spatial-econometric analyses of parties’ election policies from several established democracies robustly confirm that political parties respond to left-right policy positions of foreign political parties that have recently governed. By showing that parties respond to these foreign incumbent parties, this work has significant implications for our understanding of party competition. Furthermore, we contribute to the literature on public policy diffusion, as we suggest that political parties are important vehicles through which public policies diffuse.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 110 , Issue 2 , May 2016 , pp. 397 - 410
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adams, James. 2001. “A Theory of Spatial Competition with Biased Voters: Party Policies Viewed Temporally and Comparatively.” British Journal of Political Science 31 (1): 121–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, James, Clark, Michael, Ezrow, Lawrence, and Glasgow, Garrett. 2004. “Understanding Change and Stability in Party Ideologies: Do Parties Respond to Public Opinion or to Past Election Results?” British Journal of Political Science 34 (4): 589–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, James, Clark, Michael, Ezrow, Lawrence, and Glasgow, Garrett. 2006. “Are Niche Parties Fundamentally Different from Mainstream Parties? The Causes and the Electoral Consequences of Western European Parties’ Policy Shifts, 1976-1998.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (3): 513–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, James, Ezrow, Lawrence, and Wlezien, Christopher. 2015. “The Company You Keep: How Citizens Infer Party Positions on European Integration from Governing Coalition Arrangements.” American Journal of Political Science. DOI: 10.1111/ajps.12231, published online 25 November 2015.Google Scholar
Adams, James, Haupt, Andrea, and Stoll, Heather. 2009. “What Moves Parties? The Role of Public Opinion and Global Economic Conditions in Western Europe.” Comparative Political Studies 42 (5): 611–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, James, and Merrill, Samuel. 2009. “Policy-Seeking Parties in a Parliamentary Democracy with Proportional Representation: A Valence-Uncertainty Model.” British Journal of Political Science 39 (3): 539–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, James, and Somer-Topcu, Zeynep. 2009. “Do Parties Adjust their Policies in Response to Rival Parties’ Policy Shifts? Spatial Theory and the Dynamics of Party Competition in Twenty-Five Democracies.” British Journal of Political Science 39 (4): 825–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvarez, Michael, Nagler, Jonathan, and Bowler, Shaun. 2000. “Issues, Economics, and the Dynamics of Multiparty Elections: The British 1987 General Election.” American Political Science Review 94 (1): 131–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basinger, Scott, and Hallerberg, Mark. 2004. “Remodeling the Competition for Capital: How Domestic Politics Erases the Race to the Bottom.” American Political Science Review 98 (2): 261–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, Nathaniel. 2001. “Time-Series-Cross-Section Data: What Have We Learned in the Past Few Years?” Annual Review of Political Science 4 (1): 271–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendor, Jonathan, Diermeier, Daniel, Siegel, David, and Ting, Michael. 2011. A Behavioral Theory of Elections. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendor, Jonathan, Mookherjee, Dilip, and Ray, Debraj. 2005. “Satisficing and Selection in Electoral Competition.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 5 (1): 1–30.Google Scholar
Bennett, Colin. 1991. “Review Article: What Is Policy Convergence and What Causes It?” British Journal of Political Science 21 (2): 215–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budge, Ian. 1994. “A New Spatial Theory of Party Competition: Uncertainty, Ideology, and Policy Equilibria Viewed Comparatively and Temporarily.” British Journal of Political Science 24 (4): 443–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budge, Ian, Crewe, Ivor, and Farlie, Dennis. 2010. Party Identification and Beyond: Representations of Voting and Party Competition. Colchester: ECPR Press.Google Scholar
Budge, Ian, Keman, Hans, McDonald, Michael, and Pennings, Paul. 2012. Organizing Democratic Choice: Party Representation over Time. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budge, Ian, Klingemann, Hans-Dieter, Volkens, Andrea, Bara, Judith, and Tanenbaum, Eric. 2001. Mapping Policy Preferences: Estimates for Parties, Electors, and Governments 1945-1998. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buhaug, Halvard, and Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede (2008). “Contagion or Confusion? Why Conflicts Cluster in Space.” International Studies Quarterly 52 (2): 215–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, William. 2003. Capitalism Not Globalism. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobbin, Frank, Simmons, Beth, and Garrett, Geoffrey. 2007. “The Global Diffusion of Public Policies: Social Construction, Coercion, Competition, or Learning?” Annual Review of Sociology 33 (1): 449–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Döring, Holger, and Manow, Philip. 2012. Parliament and Government Composition Database (ParlGov): An Infrastructure for Empirical Information on Parties, Elections, and Governments in Modern Democracies. Version 12/10 – 15 October 2012. Available online: http://parlgov.org/ (Accessed July 23, 2015).Google Scholar
Dolowitz, David, Greenwold, Stephen, and Marsh, David. 1999. “Policy Transfer: Something Old, Something New, Something Borrowed, But Why Red, White And Blue?” Parliamentary Affairs 52 (4): 719–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolowitz, David, and Marsh, David. 2000. “Learning from Abroad: The Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy-Making.” Governance 13 (1): 5–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dow, Jay. 2001. “A Comparative Spatial Analysis of Majoritarian and Proportional Elections.” Electoral Studies 20 (1): 109–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dow, Jay. 2011. “Party-System Extremism in Majoritarian and Proportional Electoral Systems.” British Journal of Political Science 41: 341–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downs, Anthony. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Dreher, Axel. 2006. “Does Globalization Affect Growth? Evidence from a New Index of Globalization.” Applied Economics 38 (10): 1091–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elkins, Zachary, and Simmons, Beth. 2005. “On Waves, Clusters, and Diffusion: A Conceptual Framework.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 598 (1): 33–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erikson, Robert, and Romero, David. 1990. “Candidate Equilibrium and the Behavioral Model of the Vote.” American Political Science Review 84 (4): 1103–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erikson, Robert, MacKuen, Michael, and Stimson, James. 2002. The Macro Polity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Geoffrey, and Whitefield, Stephen. 1993. “Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe.” British Journal of Political Science 23 (4): 521–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Geoffrey, and Whitefield, Stephen. 1998. “The Evolution of Left and Right in Post-Soviet Russia.” Europe-Asia Studies 50 (6): 1023–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ezrow, Lawrence, and Hellwig, Timothy. 2014. “Responding to Voters or Responding to Markets? Political Parties and Public Opinion in an Era of Globalization.” International Studies Quarterly 58 (4): 816–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, James, and Laver, Michael. 2008. “A Tournament of Party Decision Rules.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 52 (1): 68–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franzese, Robert, and Hays, Jude. 2007. “Spatial Econometric Models of Cross-Sectional Interdependence in Political Science Panel and Time-Series-Cross-Section Data.” Political Analysis 15 (2): 140–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franzese, Robert, and Hays, Jude. 2008. “Interdependence in Comparative Politics: Substance, Theory, Empirics, Substance.” Comparative Political Studies 41 (4/5): 742–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gale, Douglas, and Kariv, Shachar. 2003. Bayesian Learning in Social Networks. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Garrett, Geoffrey. 1998. Partisan Politics in the Global Economy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gigerenzer, Gerd, and Gaissmaier, Wolfgang. 2011. “Heuristic Decision Making.” Annual Review of Psychology 62 (1): 451–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilardi, Fabrizio. 2010. “Who Learns From What In Policy Diffusion Processes?” American Journal of Political Science 54 (3): 650–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilardi, Fabrizio. 2012. “Transnational Diffusion: Norms, Ideas, and Policies.” In Handbook of International Relations, eds. Carlsnaes, Walter, Risse, Thomas, and Simmons, Beth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 453–77.Google Scholar
Gilardi, Fabrizio. 2014. “Methods for the Analysis of Policy Interdependence.” In Comparative Policy Studies. Conceptual and Methodological Challenges, eds. Engeli, Isabelle and Allison, Christine Rothmayr. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 185–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glasgow, Garrett, and Alvarez, Michael. 2005. “Voting Behavior and the Electoral Context of Government Formation.” Electoral Studies 24 (2): 245–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green-Pedersen, Christoffer, Mortensen, Peter, and Thesen, Gunnar. 2015. “The Incumbency Bonus Revisited: Causes and Consequences of Median Dominance.” British Journal of Political Science. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007123415000022, published online 23 March 2015.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter, and Soskice, David, eds. 2001. Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harbers, Imke, de Vries, Catherine, and Steenbergen, Marco. 2012. “Attitude Variability Among Latin American Publics – How Party System Structuration Affects Left/Right Ideology.” Comparative Political Studies 46 (8): 947–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haupt, Andrea. 2010. “Parties’ Responses to Economic Globalization.” Party Politics 16 (1): 5–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hays, Jude, Kachi, Aya, and Franzese, Robert. 2010. “A Spatial Model Incorporating Dynamic, Endogenous, Network Interdependence: A Political Science Application.” Statistical Methodology 7 (3): 406–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hearl, Derek. 2001. “Checking the Party Policy Estimates: Reliability.” In Mapping Policy Preferences: Estimates for Parties, Electors, and Governments 1945-1998, eds. Budge, Ian, Klingemann, Hans-Dieter, Volkens, Andrea, Bara, Judith, and Tanenbaum, Eric. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 111–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holzinger, Katharina, and Knill, Christoph. 2005. “Causes and Conditions of Cross-National Convergence.” Journal of European Public Policy 12 (5): 775–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopmann, David, de Vreese, Claes, and Albæk, Erik. 2011. “Incumbency Bonus in Election News Coverage Explained: The Logics of Political Power and the Media Market.” Journal of Communication 61 (2): 264–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber, John, and Inglehart, Ronald. 1995. “Expert Interpretations of Party Space and Party Locations in 42 Societies.” Party Politics 1 (1): 73–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber, John, and Powell, Bingham. 1994. “Congruence between Citizens and Policymakers in Two Visions of Democracy.” World Politics 46 (3): 291–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, John. 2003. “A Computational Theory of Electoral Competition.” In Computational Models in Political Economy, eds. Kollman, Ken, Miller, John, and Page, Scott. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 109–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacoby, Wade. 2006. “Inspiration, Coalition, and Substitution: External Influences on Postcommunist Transformations.” World Politics 58 (4): 623–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, Daniel, and Frederick, Shane. 2002. “Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment.” In Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, eds. Gilovich, Thomas, Griffin, Dale, and Kahneman, Daniel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 49–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, Daniel, Slovic, Paul, and Tversky, Amos (eds.). 1982. Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, Daniel, and Tversky, Amos. 1979. “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk.” Econometrica 47 (2): 263–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, Shin-Goo, and Powell, Bingham. 2010. “Representation and Policy Responsiveness: The Median Voter, Election Rules, and Redistributive Welfare Spending.” Journal of Politics 72 (4): 1014–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kayser, Mark. 2007. “How Domestic is Domestic Politics? Globalization and Elections.” Annual Review of Political Science 10 (1): 341–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kedar, Orit. 2005. “When Moderate Voters Prefer Extreme Parties: Policy Balancing in Parliamentary Elections.” American Political Science Review 99 (2): 185–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Desmond, and Wickham-Jones, Mark. 1999. “From Clinton to Blair: The Democratic (Party) Origins of Welfare to Work.” Political Quarterly 70 (1): 62–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klingemann, Hans-Dieter, Volkens, Andrea, Bara, Judith, Budge, Ian, and McDonald, Michael. 2006. Mapping Policy Preferences II: Estimates for Parties, Electors, and Governments in Central and Eastern Europe, European Union, and OECD 1990-2003. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kollman, Ken, Miller, John, and Page, Scott E.. 1992. “Adaptive Parties in Spatial Elections.” American Political Science Review 86 (4): 929–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kollman, Ken, Miller, John, and Page, Scott. 1998. “Political Parties and Electoral Landscapes.” British Journal of Political Science 28 (1): 139–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Küpper, Mechthild. 2015. Tsipras und die deutsche Linke: Griechischer Gott. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Available online: http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/linkspartei-zu-tsipras-griechischer-gott-13395659.html (Accessed July 23, 2015).Google Scholar
Laver, Michael. 2005. “Policy and the Dynamics of Political Competition.” American Political Science Review 99 (2): 263–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laver, Michael, Benoit, Kenneth, and Garry, John. 2003. “Estimating the Policy Positions of Political Actors Using Words as Data.” American Political Science Review 97 (2): 311–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laver, Michael, and Sergenti, Ernest. 2012. Party Competition: An Agent Based Model. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Lee, Chang Kil, and Strang, David. 2006. “The International Diffusion of Public Sector Downsizing: Network Emulation and Theory-Driven Learning.” International Organization 60 (4): 883–909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leistner, Alexandra. 2015. Mit Unterstützung aus Spanien: Alexis Tsipras beendet griechischen Wahlkampf siegesgewiss. Available online: http://de.euronews.com/2015/01/23/mit-unterstuetzung-aus-spanien-alexis-tsipras-beendet-griechischen-wahlkampf-/ (Accessed July 23, 2015).Google Scholar
Linzer, Drew. 2008. “The Structure of Mass Ideology and Its Consequences for Democratic Governance.” Ph.D. diss.University of California at Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Lleras, Christy. 2005. “Path Analysis.” In Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, ed. Kempf-Leopard, Kimberly. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 25–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markowski, Radoslaw. 1997. “Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 30 (3): 221–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marks, Gary, Hooghe, Liesbet, Nelson, Moira, and Edwards, Erica. 2006. “Party Competition and European Integration in the East and West: Different Structure, Same Causality.” Comparative Political Studies 39 (2): 155–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marks, Gary, Hooghe, Liesbet, Steenbergen, Marco, and Bakker, Ryan. 2007. “Crossvalidating Data on Party Positioning on European Integration.” Electoral Studies 26 (1): 23–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAllister, Ian, and White, Stephen. 2007. “Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Post-Communist Societies.” Party Politics 13 (2): 197–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, Michael, and Budge, Ian. 2005. Elections, Parties, Democracy: Conferring the Median Mandate. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, Michael, and Mendes, Silvia. 2001. “Checking the Party Policy Estimates: Convergent Validity.” In Mapping Policy Preferences: Estimates for Parties, Electors, and Governments 1945-1998, eds. Budge, Ian, Klingemann, Hans-Dieter, Volkens, Andrea, Bara, Judith, and Tanenbaum, Eric. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 127–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meseguer, Covadonga. 2005. “Policy Learning, Policy Diffusion, and the Making of a New Order.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 598 (1): 76–82.Google Scholar
Meseguer, Cavadonga. 2006. “Rational Learning and Bounded Learning in the Diffusion of Policy Innovations.” Rationality and Society 18 (1): 35–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Most, Benjamin, and Starr, Harvey. 1990. “Theoretical and Logical Issues in the Study of International Diffusion.” Journal of Theoretical Politics 2 (4) 391–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
New Statesmen. 2014. Ed Miliband Interview – On the Trade Unions, Party Funding, and Arnie Graf. Available online at http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2014/02/ed-miliband-interview-trade-unions-party-funding-and-arnie-graf (Accessed on July 23, 2015).Google Scholar
Peck, Jamie. 2011. “Geographies of Policy: From Transfer-Diffusion to Mobility-Mutation.” Progress in Human Geography 35 (6): 773–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peck, Jamie, and Theodore, Nik. 2001. “Exporting Workfare/Importing Welfare-to-Work: Exploring the Politics of Third Way Policy Transfer.” Political Geography 20 (4): 427–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitkin, Hanna. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitzke, Marc. 2015. SPD buhlt um Jim Messina: Obamas rotblonder Vollstrecker. Der Spiegel. Available online at http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/obama-stratege-jim-messina-soll-berater-der-spd-werden-a-1017288.html (Accessed July 23, 2015).Google Scholar
Plümper, Thomas, and Martin, Christian. 2008. “Multi-Party Competition: A Computational Model with Abstention and Memory.” Electoral Studies 27 (3): 424–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plümper, Thomas, and Neumayer, Eric. 2010. “Model Specification in the Analysis of Spatial Dependence.” European Journal of Political Research 49 (3): 418–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plümper, Thomas, and Troeger, Vera. 2007. “Efficient Estimation of Time-Invariant and Rarely Changing Variables in Finite Sample Panel Analyses with Unit Fixed Effects.” Political Analysis 15 (2): 124–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plümper, Thomas, Troeger, Vera, and Manow, Philip. 2005. “Panel Data Analysis in Comparative Politics.” European Journal of Political Research 44 (2): 327–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pop-Eleches, Grigore, and Tucker, Joshua A.. 2011 “Communism's Shadow: Postcommunist Legacies, Values, and Behavior.” Comparative Politics 43 (4): 379–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, Bingham. 2000. Elections as Instruments of Democracy: Majoritarian and Proportional Visions. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Roemer, John. 2001. Political Competition. Theory and Applications. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenau, James. 1990. Turbulence in World Politics: A Theory of Change and Continuity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sartori, Giovanni. 1976. Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Herman, and Scholz, Evi. 2005. The Mannheim Eurobarometer Trend File, 1970-2002. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.Google Scholar
Schoenbacher, Klaus, de Ridder, Jan, and Lauf, Edmund. 2001. “Politicians on TV News: Getting Attention in Dutch and German Election Campaigns.“ European Journal of Political Research 39 (4): 519–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Semetko, Holli. 1996. “Political Balance on Television. Campaigns in the United States, Britain, and Germany.” International Journal of Press/Politics 1 (1): 51–71.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert. 1955. “A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 69 (1): 99–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons, Beth, Dobbin, Frank, and Garrett, Geoffrey. 2003. The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth, Dobbin, Frank, and Garrett, Geoffrey. 2006. “Introduction: The International Diffusion of Liberalism.” International Organization 60 (4): 781–810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somer-Topcu, Zeynep. 2009. “Timely Decisions: The Effects of Past National Elections on Party Policy Change.” Journal of Politics 71 (1): 238–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soroka, Stuart, and Wlezien, Christopher. 2010. Degrees of Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Steinmo, Sven. 2010. The Evolution of Modern States: Sweden, Japan, and the United States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Diane. 1996. Capturing the Political Imagination: Think Tanks and the Policy Process. New York: Frank Cass.Google Scholar
Stimson, James, Mackuen, Michael, and Erikson, Robert. 1995. “Dynamic Representation.” American Political Science Review 89 (3): 543–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swank, Duane. 2002. Global Capital, Political Institutions, and Policy Change in Developed Welfare States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tversky, Amos, and Kahneman, Daniel.1974. “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.” Science 185 (4157): 1124–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tversky, Amos, and Kahneman, Daniel. 1982. “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases.” In Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, eds. Tversky, Amos and Kahneman, Daniel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 3–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volkens, Andrea, Lehmann, Pola, Merz, Nicolas, Regel, Sven, and Werner, Annika. 2013. The Manifesto Data Collection. Manifesto Project (MRG/CMP/MARPOR). Version 2013a. Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB).Google Scholar
Ward, Hugh, and Cao, Xun. 2012. “Domestic and International Influences on Green Taxation.” Comparative Political Studies 45 (9): 1075–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, Hugh, Ezrow, Lawrence, and Dorussen, Han. 2011. “Globalization, Party Positions, and the Median Voter.” World Politics 63 (3): 509–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, Hugh, and John, Peter. 2013. “Competitive Learning in Yardstick Competition: Testing Models of Policy Diffusion with Performance Data.” Political Science Research and Methods 1 (1): 3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, Michael, and Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede. 2008. Spatial Regression Models. London: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warwick, Paul. 2002. “Toward a Common Dimensionality in West European Policy Spaces.” Party Politics 8 (1): 101–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weibull, Jörgen. 1995. Evolutionary Game Theory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Weyland, Kurt. 2005. “The Diffusion of Innovations: How Cognitive Heuristics Shaped Bolivia's Pension Reform.” Comparative Politics 38 (1): 21–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Laron. 2015 “It's All Relative: Spatial Positioning of Parties and Ideological Shifts.” European Journal of Political Research 54 (1): 141–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Laron, and Whitten, Guy. 2015. “Don't Stand So Close to Me: Spatial Contagion Effects and Party Competition.” American Journal of Political Science 59 (2): 309–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Laron, Seki, Katsunori, and Whitten, Guy. 2015. You've Got Some Explaining To Do: The Influence of Economic Conditions and Spatial Competition on Party Strategy. Political Science Research and Methods. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2015.13, published online: May 13, 2015.Google Scholar
Wittman, Donald. 1983. “Candidate Motivation: A Synthesis of Alternative Theories.” American Political Science Review 77 (1): 142–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Böhmelt supplementary material S1

Böhmelt supplementary material

Download Böhmelt supplementary material S1(PDF)
PDF 56.6 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Böhmelt supplementary material S2

Böhmelt supplementary material

Download Böhmelt supplementary material S2(PDF)
PDF 103.8 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Böhmelt supplementary material S3

Böhmelt supplementary material

Download Böhmelt supplementary material S3(PDF)
PDF 317.9 KB
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.