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Prison Health, Public Health: Obligations and Opportunities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 January 2021

John V. Jacobi
John V. Jacobi*
Affiliation:
Seton Hall Law School, [email protected].
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Extract

We don't care enough about prisoners’ welfare. We should care deeply because, as two prominent commentators on the history of prisons have said, “Prisoners are ourselves writ large or small. And, as such, they should not be subjected to suffering exceeding fair expiation for the crimes for which they have been convicted.” Well over two million persons are imprisoned in America today. We imprison a higher percentage of our population than any other country. Those we imprison are disproportionately poor, of color, uneducated, and sick. They have chronic conditions, mental illnesses, sexually transmitted diseases and other infectious diseases. They usually receive inadequate health care—and sometimes shockingly poor care.6 It has always been so. Prison reformers have argued for decent prison care based on humanitarian principles since the founding of the Republic, and, notwithstanding some notable achievements, have failed to achieve decent conditions. In the last fifty years, reformers shifted to individual rights arguments based on prisoners’ constitutional rights.

Type
Article
Information
American Journal of Law & Medicine , Volume 31 , Issue 4 , December 2005 , pp. 447 - 478
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics and Boston University 2005

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References

1 Morris, Norvall & Rothman, David, Introduction to THE OXFORD HISTORY OF THE PRISON: THE PRACTICE OF PUNISHMENT IN WESTERN SOCIETY xiii (Norvall Morris & David J. Rothman eds., Oxford University Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

2 Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prison Statistics, U.S. Dep’t. of Justice, available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/prisons.htm (last modified Nov. 2, 2005).

3 Scott Shane, Locked Up in Land of the Free, BALTIMORE SUN, June 1, 2003, at 2A.

4 See, e.g., Doris James, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Profile of Jail Inmates, 2002, U.S. Dep’t. of Justice, available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/pji02.pdf (last modified Oct. 12, 2004) (in 2002, 59.2% of inmates had a pre-arrest monthly income of less than 1,000), and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Offenders Statistics, U.S. Dep’t. of Justice, available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/crimoff.htm#inmates (last modified June 27, 2005) (64% of prisoners belonged to a racial or ethnic minority in 2001).

5 Norval Morris, The Contemporary Prison: 1965 – Present, in THE OXFORD HISTORY OF THE PRISON, supra note 1, at 226, 250-253.

6 See, e.g., Kim Bell & William Allen, Former CMS Doctor Says Bottom Line Ruled, ST. LOUIS DISPATCH, Sept. 27, 1998, at G5.

7 Morris, supra note 5, at 245.

8 See Brent Staples, Fighting the AIDS Epidemic by Issuing Condoms in the Prisons, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 7, 2004, (Editorial Observer), at 22.

9 See infra notes 251-253.

10 See The Sentencing Project, New Incarceration Figures: Growth in Population Continues 5 (Nov. 2005), http://www.sentencingproject.org/pdfs/1044.pdf.

11 See supra note 4.

12 Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Dep’t. of Justice, Key Facts at a Glance: Correctional Populations, available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance/tables/corr2tab.htm (last modified Nov. 2, 2005).

13 See supra note 10.

14 See International Centre for Prison Studies, Entire World-Prison Population Rates per 100,000 of the National Population, available at http://www.prisonstudies.org/. The International Centre for Prison Studies is in the School of Law, King's College, University of London, and it has maintained a regularly updated compilation of incarceration rates since 2000. Id.

15 See MARC MAUER, RACE TO INCARCERATE 17 (The New Press, 1999).

16 PAIGE M. HARRISON & ALLEN J. BECK, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, U.S. DEP’T. OF JUSTICE, PRISONERS IN 2003 9 (Nov. 2004), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/p03.pdf.

17 DORIS J. JAMES, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, U.S. DEP’T. OF JUSTICE, PROFILE OF JAIL INMATES 2002 2 (Oct. 12, 2004), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/pji02.pdf.

18 See MAUER, supra note 15, at 124-25.

19 See THOMAS P. BONCZAR & ALLEN J. BECK, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, U.S. DEP’T. OF JUSTICE, LIFETIME LIKELIHOOD OF GOING TO STATE OR FEDERAL PRISON 3 (March 1997), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/llgsfp.pdf.

20 Id.

21 SCOTT CHRISTIANSON, WITH LIBERTY FOR SOME 281 (Northeastern University Press, 1998).

22 CAROLINE WOLF HARLOW, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS, U.S. DEP’T. OF JUSTICE, EDUCATION & CORRECTIONAL POPULATIONS 2-3 (Apr. 2003), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/ecp.pdf, (The state prison and general population figures are from 1997, and the jail figures are from 1996); see also JOAN PETERSILIA, WHEN PRISONS COME HOME: PAROLE & PRISONER REENTRY 32 (2003) (over half of state prisoners are either completely or functionally illiterate).

23 BRUCE WESTERN ET AL, JUSTICE POLICY INSTITUTE, EDUCATION & INCARCERATION 7 (Aug. 28, 2003), http://www.soros.org/initiatives/justice/articles_publications/publications/education_incarceration_20030828/EducationIncarceration1.pdf.

24 See Harlow, supra note 22, at 10. See also MAUER, supra note 15, at 162-63.

25 See sources cited supra note 4 & 5.

26 RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL: CHARTING THE SAFE AND SUCCESSFUL RETURN OF PRISONERS TO THE COMMUNITY 157 (2005) (footnotes omitted) [hereinafter REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL] (The Re-Entry Council was formed by the Council of State Governments and was funded by the United States Departments of Justice, Labor, and Health and Human Services. Project partners included the American Probation and Parole Association, the Association of State Correctional Administrators, and the National Center for State Courts). See also Hammett, Theodore M. et al., Health-Related Issues in Prisoner Reentry, 47:3 CRIME & DELINQUENCY 390, 390 (2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (“Prison and jail inmates represent an extremely large population that is disproportionately burdened with problems of physical and mental illness and substance abuse.”).

27 See NATIONAL COMMISSION ON CORRECTIONAL HEALTH CARE, THE HEALTH STATUS OF SOON-TO-BE-RELEASED INMATES: A REPORT TO CONGRESS, VOLUME 1, 15-28 (March 2002), http://www.ncchc.org/stbr/Volume1/Health%20Status%20(vol%201).pdf [hereinafter NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS].

28 See id. at 15 (using prevalence among inmates of communicable diseases, including STDs, chronic diseases and mental illnesses, to characterize and discuss prisoners’ health status).

29 See TABER's CYCLOPEDIC MEDICAL DICTIONARY 362-65 (Clayton L. Thomas ed., F.A. Davis Co. 1985) (1941).

30 UCF Center for AIDS Prevention Studies, What Is the Role of Prisons in HIV, Hepatitis, STD & TB Prevention?, http:// http://www.caps.ucsf.edu/inmaterev.html (last visited Nov. 18, 2005).

31 Freudenberg, Nicholas, Jails, Prisons, and the Health of Urban Populations: A Review of the Impact of the Correctional System on Community Health, 78:2 J. URBAN HEALTH 214, 217 (2001)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed (footnotes omitted).

32 NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 19. See Freudenberg, supra note 31,at 218 (thirty to forty percent of prisoners are infected with hepatitis C; rates of infection with other communicable diseases are also high).

33 NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 18.

34 Freudenberg, supra note 31, at 218 (footnotes omitted).

35 Id. (footnote omitted).

36 Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 391.

37 NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 21.

38 Id. See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 390 (reporting a 9% asthma incidence among inmates and 8% among the general population).

39 NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 21 (reporting that diabetics represent an estimated 4.8% of inmates and 7% of the general population, and that 18.3% of inmates and 24.5% of the general public suffer from hypertension) (source omitted). But see Freudenberg, supra note 31 at 221 (citing “anecdotal reports, commentaries, and facility case histories” for the proposition that rates of diabetes and hypertension, as well as seizure disorder were above the rates in the general population).

40 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 21 (“These inmate prevalence rates are still high, however, considering that inmates are a relatively young population and that these two diseases are much likelier to afflict older individuals, who are relatively underrepresented among inmates.”); Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 390-91.

41 Cf. Weissberg, Michael, Chained in the Emergency Department: The New Asylum for the Poor, 42 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 3, 317-19 (1991)Google Scholar (arguing that “[p]ublic agencies have developed a variety of restrictions to control their census” and that “a coordinated mental health system” is a necessary response to such “interinstitutional bickering”).

42 See Talbott, John A., Deinstitutionalization: Avoiding the Disasters of the Past, 30 HOSP. & COMMUNITY PSYCHIATRY 621-24 (1979)Google ScholarPubMed, reprinted in 55 PSYCHIATRIC SERVICES 1112-15 (2004).

43 See TERRY A. KUPERS, PRISON MADNESS: THE MENTAL HEALTH CRISIS BEHIND BARS & WHAT WE MUST DO ABOUT IT, at xv-xvi (Jossey-Bass 1999); Stone, T. Howard, Therapeutic Implications of Incarceration For Persons With Severe Mental Disorders: Searching for Rational Health Policy, 24 AM. J. CRIM. L. 283, 291 (1997)Google Scholar (noting that drug related offenses more likely result in incarceration and receive longer sentences than other offenses).

44 Freuedenberg, supra note 31, at 220.

45 Id. at 220, citing Paula M. Ditton, Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and Probationers, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS SPECIAL REP., July 1999, at 1, available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/mhtip.pdf.

46 Freuedenberg, supra note 31 at 220.

47 See COUNCIL ON STATE GOVERNMENTS, CRIMINAL JUSTICE/MENTAL HEALTH CONSENSUS PROJECT 4 (2002) [hereinafter CRIMINAL JUSTICE/MENTAL HEALTH CONSENSUS PROJECT], available at www.consensusproject.org. The Consensus Project was coordinated by the Council on State Governments with the assistance of, among others, The Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law, The Association of State Correctional Administrators, and the Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Id. at iii.

48 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 25-26 (“prevalence rates of many mental illnesses among inmates are higher than the rates for these conditions among the U.S. population as a whole”).

49 Id. (reporting a lifetime prevalence in state prison of 2.3-3.9% and 0.8% in the general population).

50 Id. (reporting six month prevalence rates of 0.4% in jails and 0.4% in the general population).

51 See id. at 22-26 (estimating the prevalence of chronic disease among inmates by adjusting data collected for the general population to reflect the socioeconomic status, age, gender and race demographics of inmates); Stone, supra note 43, at 287-89 (discussing variation among and limitations of available prevalence studies).

52 See Stone, supra note 43, at 287.

53 See infra Part III.A and B.

54 See infra text at notes 115, 117-121.

55 See infra text at notes 143-147.

56 See REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 157.

57 Id. (“California alone spent nearly one billion dollars (about one-sixth of its total corrections budget) on health services for its 160,000 inmates in the 2002-03 fiscal year, nearly doubling its correctional health care costs from 1999.”) (footnote omitted).

58 Plata v. Schwarzenegger, Civ. No. C01-1351 TEH, Order to Show Cause Re: Civil Contempt and Appointment of Interim Receiver, at 2 (N.D. Cal. May 10, 2005) at 2, http://www.cand.uscourts.gov/cand/judges.nsf/0/43baa340b75c167288256ffd007bb1d5/FILE/Plata% 20OSC.pdf [hereinafter Schwarzenegger].

59 Id. at 4 (quoting with approval report of a court-appointed expert).

60 Id.

61 Id.

62 The comment of the nurse assigned to this area of the prison was, “Some of these guys are either dead or better, one of the two.” Id. at 6.

63 Id. at 5-6.

64 Id. at 8.

65 Ruiz v. Johnson, 37 F. Supp. 2d 855 (S.D. Tex. 1999).

66 Id. at 897-98.

67 Id. at 896-97.

68 Id. at 904.

69 Felilciano v. Gonzalez, 13 F. Supp. 2d 151, 158-59 (D.P.R. 1998).

70 Id. at 179-82.

71 See supra Part I.B.

72 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 30. See also Ruiz v. Johnson, 37 F. Supp. 2d 855, 899 (S.D. Tex. 1999) (documenting poor diabetes care); Madrid v. Gomez, 889 F. Supp. 1146, 1210-11 (N.D. Cal. 1995) (no established protocols for diabetes or hypertension).

73 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 29. See also Madrid, 889 F. Supp. at 1205 (N.D. Cal. 1995) (no testing for syphilis).

74 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 31. See also Ruiz, 17 F. Supp. 2d at 897 (S.D. Tex. 1999) (finding that HIV-infected prisoners were exposed to infections TB patients, and documenting “significant, even deadly, inadequacies in the level of care provided to ill inmates.”); Feliciano v. Gonzalez, 13 F. Supp. 2d 151, 174 (D.P.R. 1998) (lack of proper isolation facilities for TB); Madrid, 889 F. Supp. At 1205 (N.D. Cal. 1995) (finding “slipshod” TB testing and follow-up care; of those testing positive for TB, over one-half were never treated).

75 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 29. See also Madrid, 889 F. Supp. at 1205 (N.D. Cal. 1995) (no education or outreach for HIV; no encouragement of voluntary testing).

76 See Feliciano, 13 F. Supp. 2d at 181 (D.P.R. 1998). See also infra Part IV.C.2 (describing effect of inconsistent administration of HIV drugs).

77 HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, ILL EQUIPPED: U.S. PRISONS & OFFENDERS WITH MENTAL ILLNESS 101 (2003).

78 Id. at 103-09.

79 Id. at 109-27.

80 Id. at 128-30; see KUPERS, supra note 43, at 75-76.

81 See JEREMY TRAVIS, BUT THEY ALL COME BACK: FACING THE CHALLENGE OF PRISONER REENTRY XXVI (2005) (describing the importance of the language used in the prison context, and noting the tendency of the terms used to characterize prisoners as “other” or different from “us”).

82 Matthew W. Meskell, Note, The History of Prisons in the United States from 1777-1877, 51 STAN. L. REV. 839, 839 (1999) (quoting ROBERT VAUX, NOTICES OF THE ORIGINAL & SUCCESSIVE ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE THE DISCIPLINE OF THE PRISON AT PHILADELPHIA, & TO REFORM THE CRIMINAL CODE OF PENNSYLVANIA, WITH A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE PENITENTIARY SYSTEM (1826)) (describing Pennsylvania jails in 1776).

83 See DAVID J. ROTHMAN, THE DISCOVERY OF THE ASYLUM 59-61 (Thomas G. Blomberg ed., rev. ed. 1990) [hereinafter DISCOVERY OF THE ASYLUM] (describing an Enlightenment sensibility, drawn largely from the writings of Cesare Beccaria. This contractarian view comprised in part a Revolutionary reaction to the harsh, brutal, and sometimes arbitrary British punishment systems).

84 Id. at 97-103 (describing early 19th century prison philosophy).

85 Wolff v. McDonnell, 418 U.S. 539, 555-56 (1974).

86 Morris & Rothman, supra note 1, at xiii.

87 Id.

88 See generally TRAVIS, supra note 81.

89 See infra Part III.C.

90 See infra p. 1.

91 See infra Part IV.

92 See SCOTT CHRISTIANSON, WITH LIBERTY FOR SOME: 500 YEARS OF IMPRISONMENT IN AMERICA xv (1998) (“Prisons are repositories of failure that remind us of problems which would prove unsettling if put in open view. So we hide them in remote places and keep them guarded and inaccessible to outsiders. Few of us want to face what seems so messy, so troubling, so well concealed.”).

93 See infra Part III.A.

94 See id.

95 See discussion infra Part III.B.

96 See id.

97 See infra Part IV.

98 See infra Part IV.C.

99 See id.

100 See infra Part III.C.

101 ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 51.

102 Id. at 48-50.

103 See id. at 48-51; and David J. Rothman, Perfecting the Prison: United States, 1789-1865, in THE OXFORD HISTORY OF THE PRISON, supra note 1, at 114; Meskill, supra note 82, at 841.

104 ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 48.

105 Rothman, supra note 103, at 114-115; Meskill, supra note 82 at 843.

106 ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 59-60.

107 Id. at 61.

108 Id. at 62.

109 Id. at 61.

110 Id. at 61-62; Meskill, supra note 82, at 844-49; MICHAEL SHERMAN & GORDON HAWKINS, IMPRISONMENT IN AMERICA 82-83 (1981).

111 See Rothman, supra note 103 at 103; ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 62.

112 See Rothman, supra note 103 at 103-04; ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 62.

113 ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 62.

114 Id. at 79.

115 Id. Penitentiaries originated in Pennsylvania and New York.

116 Id. at 82-83.

117 Id. at 83. See DWIGHT JARVIS, INSTITUTIONAL TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS 25-29 (1978) (describing Pennsylvania and New York (Auburn) plans).

118 ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 72-75.

119 Rothman, supra note 103, at 112.

120 Id. at 112-13; ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 240-42.

121 Edgardo Rotman, The Failure of Reform: United States, 1865-1965, in THE OXFORD HISTORY OF THE PRISON, supra note 1, 169, 170-72; Meskill, supra note 82, at 860-61; ROTHMAN, supra note 83, at 253-54.

122 Rotman, supra note 121, at 173.

123 Id.

124 Id. at 172-73; TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 10-11.

125 Rotman, supra note 121, at 175.

126 Id. at 177-78.

127 Id. at 178-79.

128 Id. at 179-80.

129 Id. at 183-84.

130 Id. at 188-89.

131 Id. at 195-96.

132 Id. at 191-193; Eisenberg, Howard B., Rethinking Prisoner Civil Rights Cases & The Provision of Counsel, 17 S. ILL. U. L. J. 417, 422-24 (1993)Google Scholar (describing the history and emergence of civil rights litigation for correctional facilities).

133 See Feeley, Malcolm M. & Swearingen, Van, Taking Stock of the Accomplishments and Failures of Prison Reform Litigation: The Prison Conditions Cases and the Bureaucratization of American Corrections: Influences, Impacts and Implications, 24 PACE L. REV. 433, 453 (2004)Google Scholar (recognizing Alvin Bronstein as a leader in prison litigation).

134 See COMMISSION ON SAFETY & ABUSE IN AMERICA's PRISONS, TESTIMONY OF JOHN BOSTON, (Apr. 20, 2005), http://www.prisoncommission.org/statements/boston_john.pdf (describing the long course of litigation on behalf of prisoners’ rights to safe conditions).

135 See Sturm, Susan P., The Legacy & Future of Corrections Litigation, 142 U. PA. L. REV. 639, 656-57 (1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (noting the interplay between courts and broader social forces in advancing prison reform goals).

136 Rotman, supra note 122, at 192.

137 See JOHN A. FLITTER, PRISONERS’ RIGHTS: THE SUPREME COURT & EVOLVING STANDARDS OF DECENCY 64 (2001).

138 42 U.S.C. § 1983. See Monroe v. Pape, 365 U.S. 167, 179-80 (1961) (recognizing and revitalizing the § 1983 cause of action for persons deprived of federal rights by those acting under color of state law).

139 See Cooper v. Pate, 378 U.S. 546 (1964), rev’d, 324 F.2d 165 (C.A. 7th Cir.).

140 Cruz v. Beto, 405 U.S. 319 (1972) (holding that a Buddhist state prisoner who was denied his right to practice his religion had a cause of action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983).

141 Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396 (1974).

142 Wolff v. McDonnell, 418 U.S. 539 (1974).

143 Battle v. Anderson, 376 F. Supp. 402, 415 (E.D. Okla. 1974).

144 Id. at 415-16.

145 Newman v. Alabama, 349 F. Supp. 278, 281 (D. Ala. 1972) (quoting Novak v. Beto, 453 F.2d 661, 671 (5th Cir. 1971)).

146 Id. at 282.

147 Id. at 283-85.

148 Estelle v. Gamble, 429 U.S. 97 (1976).

149 Id. at 102 (quoting Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86, 101 (1958)).

150 Id. at 104.

151 See Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396 (1974); Wolff v. McDonnell 418 U.S. 539 (1974); Cooper v. Pate, 378 U.S. 546 (1964).

152 See Estelle, 429 U.S. 97.

153 See Ruiz v. Johnson, 37 F. Supp. 2d 855 (S.D. Tex. 1999).

154 See Coleman v. Wilson, 912 F. Supp. 1282 (E.D. Cal. 1995).

155 Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78, 89 (1987). The Turner standard of review applies to a broad range of constitutional claims that arise in prisons. See Johnson v. California, 125 S.Ct. 1141, 1149 (2005). It does not apply to 8th Amendment claims, where the Court continues to apply the Estelle deliberate indifference standard. See Hope v. Pelzer, 536 U.S. 730, 738 (2002). The Court recently held that strict scrutiny continues to apply to at least one species of claim in prisons: race discrimination. Johnson v. California, 125 S.Ct. 1141, 1148-50 (2005).

156 Turner, 482 U.S. at 89.

157 See Wilson v. Seiter, 501 U.S. 294, 297 (1991); Helling v. McKinney, 509 U.S. 25, 30 (1994).

158 See Sandin v. Conner, 515 U.S. 472, 484 (1995). See also FLITTER, supra note 137, at 177.

159 See Lewis v. Casey, 518 U.S. 343, 359-60 (1996).

160 See Rufo v. Inmates of Suffolk County Jail, 502 U.S. 367, 383-84 (1992).

161 Prison Litigation Reform Act, Pub. L. No. 104-134, 110 Stat. 1321-66 (codified in scattered sections of 11 U.S.C., 18 U.S.C., 28 U.S.C., and 42 U.S.C.).

162 Doe v. Washington County, 150 F.3d 920, 924 (8th Cir. 1998) (quoting 141 Cong. Rec. S7526 (daily ed. May 25, 1995) (statement of Sen. Kyl)). See Margo Schlanger, Inmate Litigation, 116 HARV. L. REV. 1555, 1633-34 (2003) (legislative history suggests that Congress wanted to limit only frivolous actions; despite the rhetoric accompanying the PLRA, it has limited both).

163 28 U.S.C. § 1915(a), (b)(2) (2000).

164 42 U.S.C. § 1997e(a) (2000).

165 See Booth v. Churner, 532 U.S. 731, 741 (2001). In addition, the Court has read broadly the application of the exhaustion requirement, which applies to actions “brought with respect to prison conditions”. 42 U.S.C. § 1997e(a) (2000). The Court interpreted this language to apply to any prisoner civil complaint, and not merely to those complaining of the condition of the prison. See Porter v. Nussle, 534 U.S. 516, 532 (2002).

166 18 U.S.C. § 3626(a), (c) (2000).

167 Id. at § 3626(b).

168 See 28 U.S.C. § 1346(b)(2) (2000) (forbidding the award of damages for “mental or emotional injury” without coincident physical injury); 42 U.S.C. § 1997e(d)(2), (3) (2000) (limiting attorneys fees recovery to percentage of monetary recovery in underlying action, and limiting hourly fee amounts).

169 See Estelle v. Gamble, 429 U.S. 97 (1976); Newman v. Alabama, 349 F. Supp. 278 (D. Ala. 1972).

170 See Sturm, supra note 135, at 705-06.

171 See Schlanger, supra note 162, at 1634.

172 Id. (describing a 10% increase in prison population).

173 Id. at 1663-64.

174 TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 186.

175 The frustration produced by the accumulation of restrictions on prisoners’ health care claims was evident in Ruiz v. Johnson, 37 F. Supp. 2d 855 (S.D. Tex. 1999). After detailing the deficiencies in the prison system's medical and psychiatric services, the court found that, “Simply stated, large numbers of inmates throughout the [Texas prison system] are not receiving adequate health care.” Id. at 906. The court deplored that, under the Supreme Court's current reading of the Eighth Amendment, no violation could be found and expressed hope the Court would modify the standard to require the provision of humane to prisoners. Id. at 907. As the following section suggests, it may be prudent to look elsewhere for progress on that front.

176 See SHERMAN & HAWKINS, supra note 110, at 93-96.

177 Id. at 92-93.

178 See supra p. 15.

179 See supra p. 14.

180 Dan E. Beauchamp & Bonnie Steinbock, Population Perspective, in NEW ETHICS FOR THE PUBLIC's HEALTH 25, 25 (1999).

181 Id.

182 Lawrence O. Gostin, Public Health Law: A Renaissance, 30 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 136, 136 (2002).

183 INST. OF MED., THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH 19 (1988).

184 See Beachamp & Steinbock, supra note 180, at 25.

185 Id. at 27.

186 See Bonnie, Richard J. & Guyer, Bernard, Injury as a Field of Public Health: Achievements and Controversies, 30 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 267, 267 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (arguing that the “mission of public health has come to encompass the prevention and treatment of injury”); Daynard, Richard A., Regulating Tobacco: The Need for a Public Health Judicial Decision-Making Canon, 30 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 281, 288 (2002)Google Scholar (arguing that public health principles should guide judges in tobacco litigation); Bebe J. Anderson & Lynne S. Wilcox, Reproductive Health, in LAW IN PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE (Richard Goodman et al. Eds. 2003) at 348 (applying public health principles to a wide variety of reproductive health concerns, including insurance coverage and government funding of services).

187 See generally Rothstein, Mark A., Rethinking the Meaning of Public Health, 30 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 144 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

188 Id. at 144-46.

189 Id. at 146.

190 Id.

191 See Fox, Daniel M., Commentary, Populations & the Law: The Changing Scope of Health Policy, 31 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 607, 608 (2003)Google Scholar.

192 Id. at 609.

193 See Epstein, Richard A., In Defense of the “Old” Public Health: The Legal Framework for the Regulation of Public Heatlh, 69 BROOK. L. REV. 1421, 1423-26 (2004)Google Scholar.

194 See infra Part IV.C.

195 See infra Part IV.C.1.

196 TRACY KIDDER, MOUNTAINS BEYOND MOUNTAINS: THE QUEST OF DR. PAUL FARMER, A MAN WHO WOULD CURE THE WORLD 231-32 (2003).

197 Epstein, supra note 193, at 1423.

198 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27 at 32-33.

199 Id.

200 REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26 at xviii.

201 See generally, REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26; UNITED STATES GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, PRISONER RELEASES: TRENDS & INFORMATION ON REINTEGRATION PROGRAMS (June 2001), http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d01483.pdf.; JAMES P. LYNCH & WILLIAM J. SABOL, URBAN INSTITUTE, JUSTICE POLICY CENTER, PRISONER REENTRY IN PERSPECTIVE (Sept. 2001), http://www.urban.org/pdfs/410213_reentry.pdf; JOAN PETERSILIA, WHEN PRISONERS COME HOME (2003); Anthony C. Thompson, Navigating the Hidden Obstacles to Ex-Offender Reentry, 45 B.C. L. REV. 255 (2004).

202 See REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26.

203 Id. at xiv-xvii.

204 Id. at ix-xiii.

205 Id. at xx.

206 Thompson, supra note 201, at 260.

207 Workforce Investment Act – Demonstration Grants; Solicitations for Grant Applications – Prisoner Re-Entry Initiative, 70 Fed. Reg. 16853, 16853 (April 1, 2005); U.S. Dep’t. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Learn About Reentry, Attorney General Ashcroft Announces Nationwide Effort To Reintegrate Offenders Back Into Communities, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/reentry/ashcroftpr.html (last visited Nov. 3 2005).

208 See UNITED STATES GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, supra note 201, at 1 (“Although many [ex-prisoners] are successfully reintegrated into society, other ex-offenders are arrested for new crimes or violations of parole or supervision and are returned to prison.”); Lynch & Sabol, supra note 201, at 14 (“Return of released prisoners potentially poses problems for public safety .”); TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 94-98 (discussing re-arrest and recidivism concerns).

209 Thompson, supra note 201, at 259.

210 REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 294-95 (describing employers’ disinclination to hire ex-prisoners and the difficulties caused by the ex-prisoners’ return to the poorest neighborhoods with the least access to jobs); PETERSILIA, supra note 22, at 40-41; TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 162-67 (describing employment difficulties of ex-prisoners).

211 REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26 at 323-29 (describing range of family problems arising in context of prisoner reentry); TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 123-27 (describing family problems caused by imprisonment).

212 See Christopher Mele and Teresa A. Miller, Collateral Civil Penalties as Techniques of Social Policy, in CIVIL PENALTIES, SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES 9, 10-11 (Christopher Mele & Teresa A. Miller eds., Routledge 2005); TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 253-59 (discussing collateral consequences).

213 NORA V. DEMLEITNER, A Vicious Cycle: Resanctioning Offenders, in CIVIL PENALTIES, SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES, supra note 212, at 185-201 (discussing effects of collateral sanctions on child custody, driving, employment, voting, and housing opportunities).

214 See generally REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26 (suggesting policy recommendations to tackle the numerous problems associated with reentry).

215 See supra Part I.B.

216 See supra Part I.C.

217 REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 283.; TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 327.

218 REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 286-87; TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 327.

219 TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 327.

220 See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 393.

221 REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 290.

222 See TRAVIS supra note 81, at 327.

223 Id.; Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 402.

224 REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 158 (imprisonment should be seen as a “window of opportunity” for the provision of necessary health care to facilitate reintegration (citing NAT’L COMM’N ON CORRECTIONAL HEALTH CARE, THE HEALTH STATUS OF SOON-TO-BE-RELEASED PRISONERS: A REPORT TO CONGRESS, VOL. 1 173 (2002)) (providing appropriate mental health services in prisons is necessary to maximize successful reentry).

225 See infra Part IV.C.

226 See, e.g., REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 283-84 (citing 21 Cheryl Roberts, Sofia Kennedy & Theodore M. Hammett, Linkages Between In-Prison & Community- Based Health Services (paper presented at the Urban Institute's Re-Entry Roundtable, New York, December 11–13, 2002). See also Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 398-400; TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 327.

227 See Rich, Josiah et al., Successful Linkage of Medical Care & Community Services for HIVPositive Offenders Being Released From Prison, 78 J. URBAN HEALTH 279, 280-81 (2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (describing Rhode Island program).

228 See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 392.

229 See REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 165.

230 See LYNCH & SABOL, supra note 201, at 15-16 (describing geographic concentration of returning prisoners); TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 28-83 (describing concentration of returning prisoners and the impoverishment of the most likely communities of return).

231 See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 398-400 (describing public health effects of inadequate prison treatment of tuberculosis and HIV disease).

232 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 21; Freudenberg, supra note 31, at 221.

233 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 30. See also Ruiz, 37 F. Supp. 2d at 899 (documenting poor diabetes care).

234 See TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 185-86.

235 See LYNCH & SABOL, supra note 201, at 15-16 (discussing how released prisoners return to poor communities).

236 NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 20-21.

237 See REPORT OF THE RE-ENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 160 (stating that prisoners often have limited access to care in their home communities); TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 282-83 (prisoners come from communities of “concentrated disadvantage”).

238 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 24-25; Freudenberg, supra note 31, at 220.

239 See HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 77 at 3; PETERSILIA, supra note 22, at 39.

240 See KUPERS, supra note 43, at 44-58.

241 See KUPERS, supra note 43, at 12-13; HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 77, at 20-23.

242 See Ralph Slovenko, The Transinstitutionalization of the Mentally Ill, 29 OHIO N. U. L. REV. 641, 655-56 (2003); Stone, supra note 43, at 291.

243 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 31-32 (“Most prisons and jails do not conform to the nationally accepted health care guidelines for mental health screening and treatment.”); KUPERS, supra note 43, at 68-83 (describing inadequate mental health care in prisons and jails).

244 See KUPERS, supra note 43, at 78-80 (discussing medication and treatment for mental health patients in prisons); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 77, at 109-14.

245 See HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 77, at 109-11.

246 Id. at 110.

247 See KUPERS, supra note 43, at 80-82; HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 77, at 59-69.

248 See HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, supra note 77, at 145-46.

249 Id. at 149-53.

250 Id. at 3.

251 See KIDDER, supra note 196, at 231-32. (The term “epidemiological pump” was coined by Paul Farmer, a public health physician, member of the faculty of Harvard Medical School, and founder of the international aid organization Partners in Health, in describing Russian prisons in the late 1990s. During that time, about half of Russia's substantial population of people infected with tuberculosis were prisoners, as were most of the people infected with strains of tuberculosis resistant to the main drug therapies for tuberculosis).

252 See Epstein, supra note 193, at 1423.

253 See Rothstein, supra note 187, at 146.

254 See supra Part I.B.

255 NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 19; Freudenberg, supra note 31, at 217- 18.

256 See supra Part I.C.

257 NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 29; see also Madrid v. Gomez, 889 F. Supp. 1146, 1205 (N.D. Cal. 1995).

258 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 31.

259 See Feliciano v. Gonzalez, 13 F. Supp. 2d 151, 181 (D.P.R. 1998) (detailing a prison that failed to follow administration requirements for HIV medication).

260 See NCCHC REPORT TO CONGRESS, supra note 27, at 41.

261 See REPORT OF THE REENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 161-62; Breena Varghese & Thomas A. Peterman, Cost-Effectiveness of HIV Counseling & Testing in US Prisons, 78 J. URBAN HEALTH 304, 309 (2001).

262 See Peterman, supra note 259, at 307-08 (estimating harm-reduction programs’ costs).

263 Id. at 309. See also REPORT OF THE REENTRY POLICY COUNCIL, supra note 26, at 160-62 (describing benefits from prisoner educational programs); TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 206 (describing preliminary positive results from harm-reduction counseling).

264 See Freudenberg, supra note 31, at 218 (about one-third of women in jails are infected with syphilis or Chlamydia; women with multiple imprisonments in New York City jails had an incidence of syphilis that exceeded that of women in the general population “by more than a thousand-fold”); Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 390 (almost one-third of syphilis cases in Chicago were diagnosed at the Cook County Jail).

265 See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 391.

266 Lobato, Mark N. et al., Public Health & Correctional Collaboration in Tuberculosis Control, 27 AM. J. PREVENTIVE MED. 112, 112 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

267 Freudenberg, supra note 31, at 218-19; see also Kimberly G. Dobbs et al., Value of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Fingerprinting as a Tool in a Rural State Surveillance Program, 120 CHEST 1877, 1879 (2001); Lobato et al., supra note 266, at 112.

268 See Dobbs et al., supra note 267, at 1879; MacNeil, Jessica R. et al., Jails, a Neglected Opportunity for Tuberculosis Prevention, 28 AM. J. PREVENTIVE MED. 225, 227 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

269 See TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 200 (describing New York's system).

270 See Lobato et al., supra note 266, at 112; MacNeil et al., supra note 268, at 227.

271 See TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 209-212 (describing post-release community programs providing care continuation for released prisoners with communicable diseases including tuberculosis).

272 See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 398-399.

273 See generally Goforth, Robyn L. & Goforth, Carol R., Appropriate Regulation of Antibiotics in Livestock Feed, 28 B.C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 39 (2000)Google Scholar; Stephenson, Joan, Researchers Describe Latest Strategies to Combat Antibiotic-Resistant Microbes, 285 JAMA 2317 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

274 See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 398.

275 See Lobato et al., supra note 266, at 115.

276 See Hammett et al., supra note 26, at 399-400.

277 See TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 207-09.

278 Id. at 202.

279 See supra Parts I.B & I.C.

280 See supra Part II.A.

281 See supra Part II.A.

282 See supra Part II.A.

283 See supra Part II.B.

284 See supra Part II.B.

285 See e.g., Schwarzenegger, supra note 58, at 2 (detailing defendants who allegedly failed to provide adequate medical care in California state prisons); Ruiz v. Johnson, 37 F. Supp. 2d 855 (S.D. Tex. 1999) (finding that exacerbating illness may constitute cruel and unusual punishment).

286 See supra Part II.B.

287 See Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11, 24-25 (1905).

288 See Watson by Hanson v. Metropolitan Transit Commission, 553 N.W.2d 406, 412 (Minn. 1996) (describing protection from tort liability enjoyed by states in discretionary actions).

289 See generally Foster, Sheila, Justice from the Ground Up: Distributive Inequities, Grassroots Resistance, and the Transformative Politics of the Environmental Justice Movement, 86 CAL. L. REV. 775 (1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Godsil, Rachel D., Note, Remedying Environmental Racism, 90 MICH. L. REV. 394 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kaswan, Alice, Distributive Justice & the Environment, 81 N.C. L. REV. 1031 (2003)Google Scholar.

290 See TRAVIS, supra note 81, at 279-99.

291 See Brennan, William J. Jr.,, State Constitutions and the Protection of Individual Rights, 90 HARV. L. REV. 489, 495 (1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (describing the phenomenon of states construing broader protections for their citizens from state constitutional provisions that share the same phrasing found in the federal constitution); Hershkoff, Helen, Positive Rights & State Constitutions: The Limits of Federal Rationality Review, 112 HARV. L. REV. 1131, 1134 (1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (describing the state constitutions as “laboratories” for dealing with social and economic change).

292 Rotman, supra note 121, at 171-73.