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Neuroscience-Based Lie Detection: The Urgent Need for Regulation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 January 2021

Henry T. Greely  and
Judy Illes
Henry T. Greely
Affiliation:
Center for Law and the Biosciences, Stanford University
Judy Illes
Affiliation:
Center for Law and the Biosciences, Stanford University
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“Illustration” or “map” are among the most frequently used words for translating the Chinese character tu, a graphic representation of any phenomenon that can be pictured in life and society, whether in traditional China or elsewhere. Investigations of the early role of tu in Chinese culture first set out to answer questions about who produced tu, the background of its originator, and the originator's purpose. How were pictures conceptualized? Interpreted? In examining tu, Chinese scholars stressed the relational aspect of tu and shu (writing) to answer both these questions, as well as to the importance of not robbing an image of its overall beauty and life with too much graphic detail. In the West, specific concepts of technical or scientific illustrations did not exist before the Renaissance. With the coming of that age, technical illustration became a specific branch of knowledge and activity, with its own specific goals and ends.

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Article
Information
American Journal of Law & Medicine , Volume 33 , Issue 2-3 , June 2007 , pp. 377 - 431
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics and Boston University 2007

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References

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5 We thank Professor Stephen Rose for inspiring some of the following discussion.

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29 See generally Ken Adler, The Lie Detectors: History of an American Obsession (2007) (detailing history of lie detection in the United States, focusing on the period until about 1960).

30 See Committee To Review the Scientific Evidence on the Polygraph, The Polygraph and Lie Detection, Appendix E, Historical Notes on the Modern Polygraph (2003) [hereinafter NRC].

31 Id.; Adler, supra note 29, at 48-51, 181-195 (discussing Marston's unusually interesting life).

32 Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013, 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923).

33 NRC, supra note 30, at 293-94. See also Adler, supra note 29, at 39-40, 51-54. Late in life, Marston, along with his wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston, invented the comic book character, Wonder Woman. One of Wonder Woman's attributes was her possession of the magic lasso, forged from the Magic Girdle of Aphrodite. NRC, supra note 30, at 295. The lasso would make anyone it encircled tell the truth.

34 Frye, 293 F. at 1024.

35 NRC, supra note 30, at 12-13.

36 See, e.g., United States v. Scheffer, 523 U.S. 303, 333 (1998). Recently, however, the New Mexico Supreme Court concluded that polygraph evidence would be presumptively admissible in New Mexico courts. Lee v. Martinez, 96 P.3d 291 (N.M. 2004). A few federal courts, applying the newer Daubert standard for admissibility of scientific evidence, have also found polygraph evidence admissible in particular cases, albeit under unusual circumstances. United States v. Allard, 464 F.3d. 529 (5th Cir. 2006); Thornburg v. Mullin, 422 F.3d 1113 (10th Cir. 2005); United States v. Piccinonna, 885 F.2d 1529 (11th Cir. 1989) (en banc).

37 NRC, supra note 30, at 6.

38 Id. at 166-68.

39 Wolpe, Foster & Langleben, supra note 3, at 42.

40 Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories Home Page, http://www.brainwavescience.com/HomePage.php (last visited July 6, 2007).

41 Id.

42 Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, http://www.brainwavescience.com/criminal-justice.php (last visited July 6, 2007).

43 Wolpe, Foster & Langleben, supra note 3, at 43.

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46 Id.

47 Harrington v. Iowa, 659 N.W.2d 509, 525 (Iowa 2003) (holding that Harrington's conviction violated the Due Process clause under Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963), because the prosecution had failed to disclose material exculpatory information in its possession to his counsel before trial).

48 Id. at 516.

49 Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, http://www.brainwavescience.com/Ruled%20Admissable.php (last visited July 6, 2007).

50 Chance, Britton et al., A Novel Method for Fast Imaging of Brain Function, Non-Invasively, with Light, 2 Optics Express 411, 413 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a less technical description, see Silberman, Steve, The Cortex Cop, 14 Wired 149 (2006).Google Scholar

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52 Id.; Richard Willing, Terrorism Lends Urgency To Hunt for Better Lie Detector, USA Today, Nov. 4, 2003; Susan Frith, Who's Minding the Brain?, The Penn. Gazette, Jan./Feb. 2004.

53 Chance, Britton, Noka, Shoko & Chen, Yu, Shining New Light on Brain Function, 3 OE Mag. 16 (2003)Google Scholar; Detecting Deception (Interview with Chance), 68 Royal Canadian Mounted Police Gazette 2 (2006), available at http://www.gazette.rcmp.gc.ca/article-en.html?&lang_id=1&article_id=246.

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57 Ioannis Pavlidis, James Levine & Paulette Baukol, Thermal Imaging for Anxiety Detection, Proc. IEE Workshop on Computer Vision Beyond the Visible Spectrum: Methods & Applications (2000) [hereinafter Pavlidis et al., Thermal Imaging for Anxiety Detection].

58 Id.

59 Pavlidis, Ioannis & Levine, James, Monitoring of Periorbital Blood Flow Rate Through Thermal Image Analysis and its Application to Polygraph Testing, 3 Engineering Med. & Biology Soc’y 2826, 2826 (2001)Google Scholar; Pavlidis, Ioannis & Levine, James, Thermal Facial Screening for Deception Detection, 2 Engineering & Med. 1183, 1183 (2002)Google Scholar; Pavlidis et al., Thermal Imaging for Anxiety Detection, supra note 57, at 56; Pavlidis, Ioannis, Eberhardt, Norman L. & Levine, James A., Seeing Through the Face of Deception: Thermal Imaging Offers a Promising Hands-off Approach to Mass Security Screening, 415 Nature 35, 35 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pollina, Dean A., Dollins, Andrew B., Senter, Stuart M., Brown, Troy E., Pavlidis, Ioannis, Levine, James & Ryan, Andrew H., Facial Skin Surface Temperature Changes During a ‘Concealed Information’ Test, 34 Annals Biomedical Engineering 1182, 1182 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (researching in collaboration with the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute).

60 Jeffrey Kluger & Coco Masters, How To Spot a Liar, Time, Aug. 20, 2006.

61 NRC, supra note 30, at 157.

62 Vicki Haddock, Lies Wide Open, San Francisco Chron., Aug. 6, 2006.

63 No Lie MRI Home Page, http://www.noliemri.com/ (last visited July 6, 2007).

64 No Lie MRI, Process Overview, http://www.noliemri.com/products/ ProcessOverview.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

65 No Lie MRI, Test Centers, http://www.noliemri.com/centers/Centers.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

66 No Lie MRI, Market Opportunity, http://www.noliemri.com/investors/MarketOpportunity.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

67 Id.

68 As to price, in projecting the size of the world market, it assumes a price of $1,800 per test and later says “the cost of testing is $30/minute.” Id. Although that might refer to the cost to the firm, it seems more likely to be intended as the price to the customer, which, for a 60 minute MRI session, would be $1,800.

69 No Lie MRI, Process Overview, http://www.noliemri.com/products/ProcessOverview.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

70 No Lie MRI, Customers – Corporations, http://www.noliemri.com/customers/GroupOrCorporate.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

71 Id.

72 No Lie MRI, Customers – Lawyers, http://www.noliemri.com/customers/Lawyers.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

73 By “international governments,” it presumably means non-U.S. national governments and not international organizations like the United Nations. No Lie MRI, Customers – Government, http://www.noliemri.com/customers/Government.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

74 No Lie MRI, Customers – Individuals, http://www.noliemri.com/customers/Individuals.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

75 No Lie MRI, Customers – Legal and Ethics, http://www.noliemri.com/customers/LegalAndEthics.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

76 Id.

77 Id.

78 Id.

79 Glenn Smith, Deli Owner Lays Hope on New MRI Lie Detector, Post and Courier (Charleston, S.C.), Jan. 16, 2007, at A1.

80 Id. Its publicity-attracting skills do have some limits. In late October 2006 one of the authors (Greely) was taped by the Today Show for a segment on No Lie MRI. The firm was going to do a truth assessment on camera for Today, supposedly of a woman who wanted to prove to her husband that she was sexually faithful. Several days after the taping, the author was told that the segment had been cancelled because the woman had changed her mind.

81 CEPHOS Corporation Home Page, http://www.cephoscorp.com/index.html (last visited July 6, 2007).

82 CEPHOS Corporation, http://www.cephoscorp.com/management.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

83 CEPHOS Corporation, http://www.cephoscorp.com/ (last visited July 6, 2007).

84 Cephos Corporation to Offer Breakthrough Deception Detection Services Using fMRI Technology with over 90% Accuracy in Individuals, Business Wire, Sept. 27, 2005.

85 Steven Laken, CEO, CEPHOS Corporation, Remarks at the Stanford Center for Law and the Biosciences Conference, Reading Minds: Lie Detection, Neuroscience, Law, and Society (Mar. 10, 2006). Both authors spoke at this conference, which Professor Greely organized, and heard Dr. Laken's presentation.

86 Id.

87 CEPHOS Corporation Home Page, http://www.cephoscorp.com/index.html (last visited July 6, 2007). See also Press Release, Steven Laken, CEO, CEPHOS Corporation, CEPHOS’ CEO Speaks on Commercial Testing (Dec. 2006), http://www.cephoscorp.com/cephos_comm_testing_20061215%20v2.pdf.

88 Our impressions are based on Dr. Laken's presentation at the Stanford conference and Dr. Kozel's commentary on a paper Judy Illes delivered on January 9, 2007 at the University of Texas, Dallas, entitled “The Ethics of Brain Imaging: Authenticity, Bluffing and the Privacy of Human Thought.” Stanford Center for Law and the Biosciences Conference, Reading Minds: Lie Detection, Neuroscience, Law, and Society (Mar. 10, 2006); Judy Illes, Associate Professor (Research) of Neurology, Stanford University, The Ethics of Brain Imaging: Authenticity, Bluffing and the Privacy of Human Thought, Lecture given at the University of Texas, Dallas (Jan. 9, 2007). Greely also had e-mail correspondence with Kozel during 2006 in which he was impressed with Kozel's concern about the ethical implications of this technology.

89 Department of Defense, Small Business Innovation Research, Small Business Technology Transfer, http://www.acq.osd.mil/osbp/sbir/ (last visited July 6, 2007).

90 Langleben also describes his results in a peer-reviewed article he co-authored in the American Journal of Bioethics, but it does not discuss any results not published in his other work. Wolpe, Foster & Langleben supra note 3, at 39.

91 Langleben, Daniel D. et al., Brain Activity During Simulated Deception: An Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Study, 15 NeuroImage 727 (2002).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

92 The experiment started with twenty-three subjects, eleven men and twelve women, all healthy and right-handed. Their average age was thirty-two and their average number of years of education was sixteen. Five subjects were excluded; four because they moved too much inside the scanner and one giving the “wrong” answer every time about the five of clubs (i.e., telling the truth). The paper does not report demographic information on the eighteen who actually completed the trial successfully.

93 Langleben et al., supra note 91, at 730.

94 Langleben, Daniel D. et al., Telling Truth from Lie in Individual Subjects with Fast Event-Related fMRI, 26 Hum. Brain Mapping 262, 262 (2005).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

95 Davatzikos, C., Ruparel, K., Fan, Y., Shen, D.G., Acharyya, M., Loughead, J. W., Gur, R.C. & Langleben, Daniel D., Classifying Spatial Patterns of Brain Activity with Machine Learning Methods: Application to Lie Detection, 28 NeuroImage 663 (2005).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

96 We owe this observation to Nancy Kanwisher, who pointed it out at a symposium at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on February 2, 2007. She in turn had it pointed out to her by Dr. Langleben shortly before that meeting.

97 Kozel, F. Andrew et al., A Pilot Study of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Brain Correlates of Deception in Healthy Young Men, 16 J. Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience 295, 295 (2004).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed This lie detection work has been under way for some time. The authors presented an abstract of their fMRI results from this paper in December 2000. The paper was submitted in June 2002 and accepted in January 2003, but not published until summer 2004.

98 Kozel, F. Andrew, Padgett, Tamara M. & George, Mark S., Brief Communications: A Replication Study of the Neural Correlates of Deception, 118 Behav. Neuroscience 852 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

99 Kozel, F. Andrew et al., Detecting Deception Using Functional Magnetic Imaging, 58 Biological Psychiatry 605 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Steven Laken, the chief executive officer of CEPHOS Corporation, is an author of this paper.

100 The researchers labeled these three clusters of brain regions the first, second, and fourth out of the seven of special interest. The first cluster included the right and left anterior cingulate cortex, the right middle cingulate cortex, the right and left superior medial frontal cortex, and the right supplementary motor area. The second cluster included the right orbitofrontal cortex, the right inferior frontal cortex, and the right iinsula. The final cluster comprised the right middle frontal cortex and the right superior frontal cortex. Id. at 608.

101 Spence, Sean A. et al., Behavioural and Functional Anatomical Correlates of Deception in Humans, 12 Brain Imaging NeuroReport 2849 (2001).Google ScholarPubMed

102 Lee, Tatia M.C. et al., Lie Detection by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 15 Hum. Brain Mapping 157 (2002)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed (manuscript was received by the journal two months before Spence's earlier-published article had been received and, in that sense, may be the earliest of these experiments).

103 Lee's group reported “four principle regions of brain activation: prefrontal and front, parietal, temoral, and sub-cortical.” Id. at 161.

104 Lee, Tatia M.C. et al., Neural Correlates of Feigned Memory Impairment, 28 NeuroImage 305 (2005).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

105 Ganis, G. et al., Neural Correlates of Different Types of Deception: An fMRI Investigation, 13 Cerebral Cortex 830, 830 (2003).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

106 Nuñez, Jennifer Maria et al., Intentional False Responding Shares Neural Substrates with Response Conflict and Cognitive Control, 25 NeuroImage 267 (2005).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

107 Mohamed, Feroze B. et al., Brain Mapping of Deception and Truth Telling about an Ecologically Valid Situation: Function MR Imaging and Polygraph Investigation – Initial Experience, 238 Radiology 679 (2006).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

108 It is not entirely clear whether the number of people tested is important apart from its likely relationship to the diversity of people tested. One might argue that, apart from being less diverse, studies with smaller numbers of subjects provide a stiffer test for fMRI-based lie detection. All other things being equal, it is harder to establish any given level of statistical significance with a smaller number of subjects than with a larger number (we owe this insight to Nancy Kanwisher). As all other things are not always equal, larger sample sizes are still preferable.

109 Brain imaging researchers often prefer to use right-handed subjects. Some brain functions are found to be located in different places in right-handed and non-right-handed people. Although there may be no reason to suspect that any particular function (not related to movement) will correlate with different regions in people with different handedness, limiting test subjects to those with one handedness removes that possible confounding factor. The vast majority of people are strongly right-handed, so it is simpler to use them as subjects. Although there is no evidence and no particular reason to think that non-right-handed people would show different areas of activation while lying, there is almost no evidence that they would not.

110 Langleben's own experiments showed significant activations in different regions. Langleben, supra note 94.

111 Illes, supra note 3.

112 Only one of the studies addressed countermeasures. In the third Kozel experiment, the subjects were asked whether they had tried any countermeasures. Several had and their efforts seemed to make no difference. These, however, were countermeasures thought up on the spot by the subjects and not necessarily measures the researchers, or others knowledgeable about the test methods, would have thought plausible. Kozel et al., supra note 99. This may be a decent proxy for interrogation of a naive person using this method, but it is surely plausible that the liars of most interested will also be best prepared with countermeasures.

113 NRC, supra note 30, at 151.

114 Ganis, supra note 105.

115 See, e.g., George W. Maschke & Gino J. Scalabrini, The Lie Behind the Lie Detector, ch. 4 (4th digital ed.), available at http://antipolygraph.org/pubs.shtml.

116 See, e.g., Polygraph.com, http://www.polygraph.com/ (last visited July 6, 2007).

117 Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act §201(h)-(g)(1), 21 U.S.C. § 333 (2006).

118 Food and Drug Administration, Institutional Review Board Information Sheets, http://www.fda.gov/oc/ohrt/irbs/offlabel.html (last visited July 6, 2007).

119 Federal Employee Policy Protection Act of 1988, 29 U.S.C. §§ 2001-2009 (2006).

120 29 U.S.C. § 2002(1)-(2) (2006). The section also prohibits employers from taking action against employees because of their refusal to take a test, because of the results of such a test, or for asserting their rights under the Act. 29 U.S.C. § 2001(3)-(4) (2006).

121 29 U.S.C. § 2001(3) (2006).

122 29 U.S.C. § 2005 (2006).

123 29 U.S.C. § 2006 (2006).

124 29 U.S.C. § 2006(d) (2006).

125 29 U.S.C. § 2007 (2006).

126 29 U.S.C. § 2007(b)(1) (2006).

127 29 U.S.C. § 2008 (2006).

128 29 U.S.C. § 2009 (2006).

129 29 C.F.R. § 801 (2006).

130 Brown, Ryan K., Specific Incident Polygraph Testing Under the Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988, 64 Wash. L. Rev. 661 (1989)Google Scholar; Chin, Ching Wah, Protecting Employees and Neglecting Technology Assessment: The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988, 55 Brook. L. Rev. 1315 (1990)Google Scholar; Cullen, Charles P., The Specific Incident Exemption of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act, 65 Notre Dame L. Rev. 262 (1990)Google Scholar; Driscoll, Brad V., The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988: A Balance of Interests, 75 Iowa L. Rev. 539 (1990)Google Scholar; Engle, Earl J., Counseling the Client in the Employee Polygraph Protection Act, 35 Prac Law 65 (1989)Google Scholar; Johnson, Peter C., Banning the Truth-Finder in Employment: The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988, 54 Mo. L. Rev. 155 (1989)Google Scholar; Natale, Andrew J., The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 – Should the Federal Government Regulate the Use of Polygraphs in the Private Sector, 58 U. Cin. L. Rev. 559 (1989)Google Scholar; Reilly, Kathleen F., The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988: Proper Penalties When Guilty Employees Are Improperly Caught, 7 Hofstra Lab. & Emp. L.J. 369 (1990)Google Scholar; Ruegger, Durwood, When Polygraph Testing Is Allowed: Limited Exceptions Under the EPPA, 108 Banking L.J. 555 (1991)Google Scholar; Sening, Yvonne K., Heads or Tails: The Employee Polygraph Protection Act, 39 Cath. U. L. Rev. 235 (1989)Google Scholar; Seyferth, Paul D., An Overview of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act, 57 J. Mo. B. 226 (2001).Google Scholar

131 The United State Code Services annotations show only fifteen cases reported in either the Federal Reporter or the Federal Supplement that discuss this Act. Watson v. Drummond Co., 436 F.3d 1310 (11th Cir. 2006); Polkey v. Transtecs Corp., 404 F.3d 1264 (11th Cir. 2005); Calbillo v. Cavender Oldsmobile, Inc., 288 F.3d 721 (5th Cir. 2002); Veazey v. Communications & Cable, Inc., 194 F.3d 850 (7th Cir. 1999); Saari v. Smith Barney, Harris Upham & Co., 968 F.2d 877 (9th Cir. 1992); Lyles v. Flagship Resort Development Corp., 371 F.Supp. 2d 597 (D. N.J. 2005); Deetjan v. V.I.P., Inc., 287 F.Supp.2d 80 (D. Me. 2003); Long v. Mango's Tropical Cafe, 972 F.Supp. 655 (S.D. Fla. 1997); Mennen v. Easter Stores, 951 F.Supp. 838 (N.D. Ia. 1997); James v. Professionals’ Detective Agency, 876 F.Supp. 1013 (N.D. Ill. 1995); Lyle v. Mercy Hosp. Anderson, 876 F.Supp. 157 (S.D. Oh., 1995); Del Canto v. ITT-Sheraton Corp., 865 F.Supp. 927 (D.D.C. 1994); Blackwell v. 53rd-Ellis Currency Exch., 852 F.Supp. 646 (N.D. Ill. 1994); Rubin v. Tourneau, Inc., 797 F.Supp. 247 (S.D.N.Y. 1992).

132 See No Lie MRI, Customers – Corporations, http://www.noliemri.com/customers/GroupOrCorporate.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

133 29 U.S.C. § 2001(3) (2006).

134 “U.S. law prohibits truth verification/lie detection testing for employees that is based on measuring the autonomic nervous system (e.g. polygraph testing). No Lie MRI measures the central nervous system directly and such is not subject to restriction by these laws. No Lie MRI is unaware of any law that would prohibit its use for employment screening.” No Lie MRI, Customers – Corporations, http://www.noliemri.com/customers/GroupOrCorporate.htm (last visited July 6, 2007).

135 29 U.S.C. § 2001(3) (2006).

136 No Lie MRI might also try to argue that fMRI is fundamentally a magnetic device and hence neither mechanical nor electrical, which, given the many mechanical and electrical aspects of an MRI examination and its analysis, is an even weaker argument – even before considering the Nineteenth Century's successful unification of electricity and magnetism.

137 10 U.S.C. § 1564(a) (2006).

138 50 U.S.C. §§ 2654-2655 (2006). Section 2654 was passed in the aftermath of the Wen Ho Lee scandal and requires the Department of Energy to adopt a new polygraph policy. Thirty days after that new policy is adopted, Section 2655 will be repealed. Interestingly, the new statute expressly requires the Secretary of Energy to “take into account the results of the Polygraph Review.” NRC, supra note 30; 50 U.S.C. § 2654(b)(2) (2006).

139 50 U.S.C. § 435(b) (2006) (covering security clearances).

140 42 U.S.C. § 3796hh(c)(5) (2006).

141 State laws concerning lie detection or polygraphs are set out in the appendix to this article.

142 See appendix.

143 See, e.g., Alaska Stat. § 23.10.037 (2006); Conn. Gen. Stat. § 31-51g (2006).

144 See, e.g., Cal. Gov't Code § 3307 (2006); Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 149, § 19B (2006).

145 See Tex. Gov't Code Ann. §§ 411.007, 411.0074, 614.063 (2006) (allowing polygraph for new police hires but prohibiting polygraphs for existing officers applying for a new job and banning any adverse actions against police officers for refusing to take a polygraph).

146 See, e.g., Tex. Gov't Code Ann. § 493.022 (2006).

147 See, e.g., Cal. Gov't Code § 3307 (2006).

148 See the appendix for details on these state laws.

149 Id.

150 Id.

151 Id.

152 Id.

153 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 32, § 7152 (1964). See identical or substantial similar language from Nebraska, Neb. Rev. Stat. § 81-1902 (1999) (providing that the statute be “liberally construed to regulate all persons” using lie detectors, stress evaluators, deceptographs and voice analyzers); Oklahoma, Okla. Stat. Ann. tit. 59, §1452 (West 2000) (providing the statute “regulate[s] all persons who purport to be able to detect deception … without regard to the nomenclature applied thereto); and South Carolina, S.C. Code Ann. § 40-53-20 (1999) (same).

154 Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 329.010(6) (LexisNexis 2001).

155 See Cal. Evid. Code § 351.1(a) (1995) (providing that “the results of a polygraph examination … shall not be admitted into evidence in any criminal proceeding … .”).

156 See generally Thomas R. Malia, Annotation, Admissibility of Voice Stress Evaluation Test Results or of Statements Made During Test, 47 A.L.R. 4th 1202 (1986, 2001 supplement) (collecting and analyzing state and federal law to conclude that tests are generally inadmissible). See also Whittington v. State, 809 A.2d 721, 740 (Md. App. 2002) (holding that results of a voice stress test are not admissible at trial); State v. Gaudet, 638 So.2d 1216, 1222 (La. App. 1994) (holding the same); State v. Higginbotham, 554 So.2d 1308, 1310 (La. App. 1989) (holding the same); State v. Arnold, 533 So.2d 1311, 1314 (La. App. 1988) (holding the same); Smith v. State, 355 A.2d 527, 536 (Md. App. 1976) (holding the same).

157 See Harrington v. Iowa, 659 N.W.2d 509, 525 (Iowa 2003).

158 See United States v. Scheffer, 523 U.S. 303, 310-11 (1998).

159 See N.M. R. Evid. 11-707(c) (allowing the opinion of the polygraph examiner to be admitted into evidence at the discretion of the trial judge). See Lee v. Martinez, 96 P.3d 291 (N.M. 2004) (discussing when to allow polygraph evidence in court).

160 NRC, supra note 30, at 293-94. See also Adler, supra note 29.

161 Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 516 U.S. 869 (1993).

162 Frye, 293 F. 1013; Daubert, 516 U.S. 869.

163 523 U.S. 303 (1998).

164 Id. at 305.

165 Id. at 305-6

166 Id. at 306.

167 Id. at 306-07.

168 Id. at 307-08.

169 Id. at 305.

170 Id. at 308-315.

171 Id. at 318-320.

172 Id. at 320-38.

173 See 1-8 Matthew Bender & Co., Inc., Scientific Evidence 8-4(C) (2005).

174 United States v. Piccinonna, 885 F.2d 1529 (11th Cir. 1989) (en banc). See also United States v. Henderson, 409 F.3d. 1293 (11th Cir. 2005) (explaining the relationship between Piccinonna and Daubert).

175 Rupe v. Wood, 93 F.3d 1434 (9th Cir. 1996). See also Height v. State, 604 S.E.2d 796 (Ga. 2004) (holding that Georgia's general ban on admitting polygraph evidence except on the parties’ stipulation did not apply to the sentencing phase of a capital case).

176 See, e.g., United States v. Cordoba, 104 F.3d 225 (9th Cir. 1997); United States v. Posado, 57 F.3d 428 (5th Cir. 1995). But see United States v. Prince-Oyibo, 320 F.3d 424 (4th Cir. 2003) (maintaining the Fourth Circuit's per se rule against the admissibility of polygraph evidence in spite of Daubert).

177 Some of the ideas in this section have appeared previously in Greely, Henry T., Pre-market Approval Regulation for Lie Detection: An Idea Whose Time May Be Coming, 5 Am. J. Bioethic 50, 50-52 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

178 Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act §§ 301-308, 21 U.S.C. § 333 (2006). See Peter B. Hutt, Richard A. Merrill & Lewis A. Grossman, Hutt, Merrill, and Grossman's Food and Drug Law 1196-1370 (3d ed. 2007).

179 Illes, supra note 3.

180 Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) § 505(i). See generally Hutt, Merrill & Grossman, supra note 178, at 624-626.

181 Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act § 505(i), 21 U.S.C. §333 (2006). See Hutt, Merrill & Grossman, supra note 178, at 624-26.

182 One might argue whether information should be provided about countermeasures. The information might give test subjects the information they need to nullify the tests; on the other hand, they may help test operators and others detect, combat, or evaluate the risk that a subject is using countermeasures.

183 See generally Illes, Judy & Eaton, Margaret L., Commercializing Cognitive Neurotechnology – The Ethical Terrain, 25 Nature Biotechnology 393 (2007)Google Scholar (asserting that a “lack of recognition of the ethical, social and policy issues associated with the commercialization of neurotechnology could compromise new ventures in the area.”).

184 This figure is a very rough estimate. It assumes that a trial would use 2,000 subjects and that the MRI time alone for each individual would cost about $1,000, for a total of $2 million. It then assumes that recruitment and management of the subjects, on the one hand, and analysis of the results, on the other, would each involve costs roughly comparable to the MRI costs, bringing the estimated total to about $6 million. The actual figure, even for a 2,000 person trial, could easily be two or three times as much; it seems very unlikely that it could be half or a third of that amount.

185 See Dan Stober and Ian Hoffman, A Convenient Spy: Wen Ho Lee and the Politics of Nuclear Espionage (2002) (discussing, in some detail, conflicting conclusions investigators drew from Lee's several polygraph tests). See also Transcript of Court Opinion, United States v. Wen Ho Lee, http://cicentre.com/Documents/DOC_Judge_Parker_on_Lee_Case.htm (extraordinary apology United States District Judge James Parker, the judge assigned to Lee's criminal case, made to Lee for the method of his detention by the federal government).

186 See Jane Mayer, Outsourcing Torture, New Yorker, Feb. 14, 2005.

187 Id.

188 Id.

189 Id.

190 Dahlia Lithwick, Welcome Back to the Rule of Law, Slate, Jan. 30, 2007, http://www.slate.com/id/2157667/.