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Prosecutor v. Nahimana, Barayagwiza, & Ngeze. Case No. ICTR 99-52-T

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2017

Catharine A. MacKinnon
Catharine A. MacKinnon*
Affiliation:
University of Michigan Law School
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Abstract

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Type
International Decisions
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 98 , Issue 2 , April 2004 , pp. 325 - 330
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 2004

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References

1 Prosecutor v. Nahimana, Barayagwiza, & Ngeze, Case No. ICTR-99-52-T, Judgment and Sentence (Dec. 3, 2003) [hereinafter Judgment and Sentence]. The judges were Navanethem Pillay (presiding), Erik Møse, and Asoka de Zoysa Gunawardana. The judgments and basic legal documents relating to the ICTR are available on its Web site, <http://www.ictr.org>.

2 Id., paras. 1105-08.

3 Id., para. 943.

4 Id., para. 301; see also id., para. 404.

5 Id., para. 235.

6 Id., para. 172.

7 Id., para. 183.

8 Id., para. 176.

9 Id., para. 178.

10 Id., para. 211.

11 Id., para. 238.

12 Id., para. 243.

13 Id., para. 231.

14 Id., para. 243.

15 Id., para. 488.

16 See, e.g., paras. 489, 949.

17 Id., para. 488.

18 Id., para. 370–71.

19 Id., para. 487.

20 Id.

21 Id., para.949.

22 Id., para. 1031.

23 Id., para. 949.

24 Id, paras. 194, 196, 204-05, 207, 950.

25 Id, para. 950.

26 Id., para. 963.

27 Id, para. 951.

28 Id., paras. 965, 969.

29 Id., para. 952.

30 Id, para. 953.

31 Id., paras. 974 (Nahimana); 975 (Barayagwiza); 977A(Ngeze). Article 6 (“Individual Criminal Responsibility”) of the ICTR Statute provides (paragraph 1): “A person who planned, instigated, ordered, committed or otherwise aided and abetted in the planning, preparation or execution of a crime referred to in Articles 2 to 4 of the present Statute, shall be individually responsible for the crime.” In addition, Barayagwiza and Ngeze engaged in physical acts of ordering, aiding, and abetting the killing of Tutsi, for which they were also convicted under Article 6(1) Judgment and Sentence, supra note 1, paras. 954-56.

32 Id, para. 968.

33 Id.

34 Id, para. 966.

35 Id, para. 974.

36 Id., para. 966.

37 E.g., id, para. 967; see id., para. 310 & n.279.

38 Id., paras. 976-77. Article 6(3) of the ICTR Statute holds superiors responsible if they “knew or had reason to know that the subordinate was about to commit such acts or had done so and the superior failed to take the necessary and reasonable measures to prevent such acts or to punish the perpetrators thereof.”

39 Judgment and Sentence, supra note 1, para. 1038.

40 Id., para. 1035.

41 Id., paras. 1033-34.

42 Id., para. 1031.

43 Id., para. 1101.

44 Id., para. 1099.

45 Id., para. 1050.

46 The three were also convicted of extermination in large-scale killings of Tutsi, variously for their own acts or as responsible superiors. Id., paras. 1053, 1055, 1063-64, 1067-68.

47 Id., paras. 1071,1081-84.

48 Id., para 1077.

49 Id., para. 1079.

50 Id., para. 1072.

51 Id., paras. 981-82 (discussing Streicher and Fritzsche cases).

52 Id., para. 1073; see id., para. 981.

53 Id., para. 1073.

54 22 Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal 301,547–49 (1947)Google Scholar (Streicher); 14 id. at 584-85 (Fritzsche).

55 Examples of such provisions in the international and regional setting include the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, Art. 20(2), 999 UNTS 171 (“Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.”), International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Mar. 7,1966, Art. 4,660 UNTS 195 (requiring states to prohibit advocacy of hatred and “all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred”), and European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, Arts. 10, 17, 213 UNTS 222 (guaranteeing freedom of expression and disallowing interpretation of any article to destroy any rights and freedoms under the Convention, as in Glimmerveen v. Netherlands, 1980 Y.B. Eur. Conv. on H.R. 366 (Eur. Ct. H.R.) and Jersild v. Denmark, 19 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) a t l (1994)). In a national context, see, for example, R v. Keegstra, 3 S.C.R. 697 (1990) (convicting of violation of Canadian hate-propaganda law; upholding provision); Beauharnais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. 250 (1952) (holding that group defamation that exposes citizens of particular race, color, creed, or religion to contempt can be made criminal). For commentary, see Striking a Balance: Hate Speech, Freedom of Expression and Non-Discrimination (Sandra Colivered., 1992); Farrior, Stephanie, Molding the Matrix: The Historical and Theoretical Foundations of International Law Concerning Hate Speech, 14 Berkeley J Int’l L. 1 (1996)Google Scholar. Mari, J. Matsuda, Charles, R. Lawrence III, Richard Delgado, Kimberlè Crenshaw, Williams, Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment (1993)Google Scholar, and Catharine, A. Mackinnon, Only Words (1993), Theorize expression in the context of its consequences Google Scholar.

56 This concept is the subject of MACKINNON, supra note 55.

57 Judgment and Sentence, supra note 1, paras. 1019-21. In the opinion, “denigration” is often coupled with “ethnic stereotyping,” much as “in a manner that promote [s] contempt and hatred” is. See, e.g., id., para. 949.

58 Id., para. 1020.

59 Id., para. 171. Inyenzi, meaning cockroach, is an insulting ethnic slur originally applied to Tutsi soldiers that became, at times, generalized to anyone of Tutsi ethnicity.

60 See, e.g., id., paras. 695-96 (Nahimana), 875-78 (Ngeze).

61 Id., paras. 564-65.

62 Id., para. 666.

63 See, e.g., paras. 141-42,158, 482, 589.

64 Id., para. 201; see id., paras. 196, 426.

65 See, e.g., id., paras. 378, 380-2, 431, 477-78.

66 Id., paras. 479-80, 482, 487.

67 Id., para. 111.

68 See, e.g., id., paras. I l l , 388, 691.

69 Id., para. 1099.

70 Id., para. 1073.

71 Id., paras. 139, 152, 188, 245, 1079; Nowrojee, Binaifer, Human Rights Watch, Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence During The Rwandan Genocide and Its Aftermath (1996)Google Scholar (documenting mass rape in Rwandan genocide). The rapes themselves were not part of the indictments in this case.

72 The legally and factually thin Alien Tort decision against Barayagwiza for torture and “massacre,” which mentioned RTLM only in passing, see Mushikiwabo v. Barayagwiza, 94 Civ. 3627 (JSM), 1996 WL 164496 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 8, 1996), would have benefited from the ICTR’s approach. Strikingly consistent with that legal approach is Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003), permitting a ban on cross burning with intent to intimidate, and Planned Parenthood of the Columbia/Willamette, Inc. v. American Coalition of Life Activists, 290 F.3d 1058 (9th Cir. 2002) (en banc), cert, denied, 123 S. Ct. 2637 (2003), ruling that a Web site hit list of abortion doctors can be enjoined, consistent with the First Amendment, as a “true threat.” For further points of convergence with U.S. First Amendment law, sec Judgment and Sentence, supra note 1, para. 1010.