Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T20:25:53.882Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Quantitative Units and Terminology in Zooarchaeology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

R. Lee Lyman*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211

Abstract

Fifteen years ago Casteel and Grayson (1977) identified potential ambiguity in the definitions of quantitative terms and units used by zooarchaeologists. As solutions they suggested that analysts use the original definitions of terms and explicitly specify how units are counted. The history of zooarchaeology since then has involved a shift from producing estimates of taxonomic abundances to measuring various taphonomic processes and effects within taxa. As a result, many new quantitative units and terms for those units have been proposed. Some of these new units and terms have been used to measure properties of bone assemblages that are not clearly related to a taphonomic process or effect. Other units and terms have been used inappropriately due to apparent misunderstanding of the property measured by a unit or due to some assumed, implicit meaning of a term. The 112 terms compiled for this study have 122 distinct definitions. Some of the designated quantitative units are synonymous with one another while other units are used in ambiguous manners that seriously compromise their reliability. Explicit definitions of quantitative units and terms along with detailed descriptions of how individual units are measured are mandatory to the efficient communication of research results and the continued prosperity of zooarchaeological research.

Resumen

Resumen

Hace quince años Casteel y Grayson (1977) identificaron la potencial ambigüedad en las definiciones de los términos cuantitativos y las unidades utilizados por zooarqueólogos. Ellos sugirieron como solución que los analistas utilizaran las definiciones originates de los términos y especificaran explicitamente la manera de contar las unidades. Desde aquel entonces la historia de zooarqueología ha cambiado de manera que ya no se producen las estimaciones de la abundancia taxonómica sino que se miden varios procesos tafonómicos y sus efectos dentro de los taxa. Como resultado, se han propuesto muchas unidades cuantitativos nuevas además de los términos para ellas. Algunos de estos términos y unidades nuevas se han utilizado para medir las propiedades de las colecciones de huesos que no están claramente relacionadas con algún proceso o efecto tafonómico. Se han utilizado inapropiadamente otras unidades y términos debido a la aparente mala interpretación de la propiedad medida por la unidad o debido a algún supuesto, implícito significado del término. Los 112 términos compilados para este estudio tienen 122 distintas definiciones. Algunas de las unidades cuantitativas indicadas tienen significados sinónimos, mientras que se utilizan otras unidades de manera tan ambigua que se compromete su veracidad. Las definiciones explícitas de las unidades cuantitativas y sus términos junto con las descripciones detalladas de cómo se miden las unidades individuales son obligatorias para la eficaz comunicación de los resultados de la investigación y la contínua prosperidad de las investigaciones zooarqueológicas.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Aaris-Sorensen, K. 1983 An Example of Taphonomic Loss in a Mesolithic Faunal Assemblage. In Animals and Archaeology : 1. Hunters and Their Prey, edited by Clutton-Brock, J. and Grigson, C., pp. 243247. BAR International Series 163. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Allen, J., and Guy, J. B. M. 1984 Optimal Estimations of Individuals in Archaeological Faunal Analysis : How Minimal is the MNI? Archaeology in Oceania 19 : 4147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altuna, J., Eastham, A., Mariezkurrena, K., Spiess, A., and Straus, L. 1991 Magdalenian and Azilian Hunting at the Abri Dufaure, SW France. Archaeo Zoologia 4(2) : 87108.Google Scholar
Andrews, P. 1990 Owls, Caves and Fossils. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Andrews, P., and Cook, J. 1985 Natural Modifications to Bones in a Temperate Setting. Man 20 : 675691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badgley, C. 1986 Counting Individuals in Mammalian Fossil Assemblages from Fluvial Environments. Palaios 1 : 328338.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1968 Archeological Perspectives. In New Perspectives in Archaeology, edited by Binford, S. R. and Binford, L. R., pp. 532. Aldine, New York.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1978 Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1981 Bones : Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1984 Faunal Remains from Klasies River Mouth. Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1988 Fact and Fiction about the Zinjanthropus Floor : Data, Arguments, and Interpretations. Current Anthropology 29 : 123135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L. R., and Bertram, J. B. 1977 Bone Frequencies— And Attritional Processes. In For Theory Building in Archaeology, edited by Binford, L. R., pp. 77153. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Blumenschine, R. J. 1989 A Landscape Taphonomic Model of the Scale of Prehistoric Scavenging Opportunities. Journal of Human Evolution 18 : 345371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobrowsky, P. T. 1982 An Examination of Casteel's MNI Behavior Analysis : A Reductionist Approach. Mid-Continental Journal of Archaeology 7 : 171184.Google Scholar
Bonnichsen, R., and Sorg, M. H. (editors) 1989 Bone Modification. Center for the Study of the First Americans, University of Maine, Orono.Google Scholar
Borrero, L. A., Casiraghi, M., and Yacobaccio, H. D. 1985 First Guanaco-Processing Site in Southern South America. Current Anthropology 26 : 273276.Google Scholar
Brain, C. K. 1967 Hottentot Food Remains and Their Bearing on the Interpretation of Fossil Bone Assemblages. Scientific Papers of the Namib Desert Research Station 32 : 111.Google Scholar
Brain, C. K. 1969 The Contribution of Namib Desert Hottentots to an Understanding of Australopithecine Bone Accumulations. Scientific Papers of the Namib Desert Research Station 39 : 1322.Google Scholar
Brain, C. K. 1976 Some Principles in the Interpretation of Bone Accumulations Associated with Man. In Human Origins : Louis Leakey and the East African Evidence, edited by LI. Isaac, G. and McCown, E. R., pp. 97116. W. A. Benjamin, Menlo Park, California.Google Scholar
Breitburg, E. 1991 Verification and Reliability of NISP and MNI Methods of Quantifying Taxonomic Abundance : A View from Historic Site Zooarchaeology. In Beamers, Bobwhites, and Blue-Points : Tributes to the Career of Paul W. Parmalee, edited by Purdue, J. R., Klippel, W. E., and Styles, B. W., pp. 153162. Scientific Papers Vol. 23. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Brewer, D. J. 1992 Zooarchaeology : Method, Theory, and Goals. In Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 4, edited by Schiffer, M. B., pp. 195244. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Bunn, H. T. 1982 Meat-Eating and Human Evolution : Studies on the Diet and Subsistence Patterns of Plio-Pleistocene Hominids in East Africa. Ph. D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Bunn, H. T. 1986 Patterns of Skeletal Representation and Hominid Subsistence Activities at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, and Koobi Fora, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 15 : 673690.Google Scholar
Bunn, H. T. 1989 Diagnosing Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Activity with Bone Fracture Evidence. In Bone Modification, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Sorg, M., pp. 299315. Center for the Study of the First Americans, University of Maine, Orono.Google Scholar
Bunn, H. T. 1991 A Taphonomic Perspective on the Archaeology of Human Origins. Annual Review of Anthropology 20 : 433467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunn, H. T. 1993 Bone Assemblages at Base Camps : A Further Consideration of Carcass Transport and Bone Destruction by the Hadza. In From Bones to Behavior, edited by Hudson, J., pp. 156168. Occasional Paper No. 21. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Bunn, H. T., and Kroll, E. M. 1986 Systematic Butchery by Plio/Pleistocene Hominids at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Current Anthropology 27 : 431452.Google Scholar
Bunn, H. T., and Kroll, E. M. 1988 Reply (to Binford). Current Anthropology 29 : 135149.Google Scholar
Cannon, A. 1991 The Economic Prehistory ofNamu. Publication No. 19. Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia.Google Scholar
Casteel, R. W., and Grayson, D. K. 1977 Terminological Problems in Quantitative Faunal Analysis. World Archaeology 9 : 235242.Google Scholar
Chaplin, R. E. 1971 The Study of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. Seminar Press, London.Google Scholar
Chase, P. G., and Hagaman, R. M. 1986-1987 Minimum Number of Individuals and Its Alternatives : A Probability Theory Perspective. Ossa 13 : 7586.Google Scholar
Cheetham, A. H., and Hazel, J. E. 1969 Binary (Presence-Absence) Similarity Coefficients. Journal of Paleontology 43 : 11301136.Google Scholar
Clark, J., and Kietzke, K. K. 1967 Paleoecology of the Lower Nodular Zone, Brule Formation, in the Big Badlands of South Dakota. In Oligocene Sedimentation, Stratigraphy and Paleoclimatology in the Big Badlands of South Dakota, edited by Clark, J., Beerbower, J. R., and Kietzke, K. K., pp. 111137. Fieldiana Geology Memoir 5. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Google Scholar
Coy, J. 1977 Appendix 4 : Animal Remains. In Kephala : A Late Neolithic Settlement and Cemetery, edited by Colman, J. E., pp. 129133. Keos 1.Google Scholar
Crader, D. C. 1983 Recent Single-Carcass Bone Scatters and the Problem of ‘Butchery’ Sites in the Archaeological Record. In Animals and Archaeology : 1. Hunters and Their Prey, edited by Clutton-Brock, J. and Grigson, C., pp. 107141. BAR International Series 163. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Crader, D. C. 1984 The Zooarchaeology of the Storehouse and the Dry Well at Monticello. American Antiquity 49 : 542558.Google Scholar
Crader, D. C. 1990 Slave Diet at Monticello. American Antiquity 55 : 690717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cruz-Uribe, K. 1988 The Use and Meaning of Species Diversity and Richness in Archaeological Faunas. Journal of Archaeological Science 15 : 179196.Google Scholar
Cruz-Uribe, K., and Klein, R. G. 1986 Pascal Programs for Computing Taxonomic Abundance in Samples of Fossil Mammals. Journal of A rchaeological Science 13 : 171187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damuth, J. 1982 Analysis of the Preservation of Community Structure in Assemblages of Fossil Mammals. Paleobiology 8 : 434446.Google Scholar
Davis, L. B., and Reeves, B. O. K. (editors) 1990 Hunters of the Recent Past. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Davis, S. J. M. 1987 The Archaeology of Animals. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Dibble, D. S., and Lorrain, D. 1968 Bonfire Shelter : A Stratified Bison Kill Site, Val Verde County, Texas. Texas Memorial Museum Miscellaneous Papers No. 1. University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Dodson, P., and Wexlar, D. 1979 Taphonomic Investigations of Owl Pellets. Paleobiology 5 : 275284.Google Scholar
During, E. 1986 The Fauna of Alvastra : An Osteological Analysis of Animal Bones from a Neolithic Pile Dwelling. Ossa 12, supplement 1.Google Scholar
Everitt, B. S. 1977 The Analysis of Contingency Tables. Chapman and Hall, London.Google Scholar
Fieller, N. R. J., and Turner, A. 1982 Number Estimation in Vertebrate Samples. Journal of Archaeological Science 9 : 4962.Google Scholar
Francillon-Vieillot, H., V. de Buffrenil, Castanet, J., Geraudi, J., Meunier, F. J., Sire, J. Y., Zylberberg, L., and deRicqles, A. 1990 Microstructure and Mineralization of Vertebrate Skeletal Tissues. In Skeletal Biomineralization : Patterns, Processes and Evolutionary Trends, edited by Carter, J. G., pp. 471530. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.Google Scholar
Fritz, J. 1972 Archaeological Systems for Indirect Observation of the Past. In Contemporary Archaeology, edited by Leone, M. P., pp. 135157. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Gamble, C. 1985 Review of ‘Quantitative Zooarchaeology : Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas’ by Grayson, D. K.. Journal of Archaeological Science 12 : 403404.Google Scholar
Gautier, A. 1984 How Do I Count You, Let me Count the Ways? Problems of Archaeozoological Quantification. In Animals and Archaeology : 4. Husbandry in Europe, edited by Grigson, C. and Clutton-Brock, J., pp. 237251. BAR International Series 227. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Gibbon, G. 1984 Anthropological Archaeology. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Gifford, D. P. 1981 Taphonomy and Paleoecology : A Critical Review of Archaeology's Sister Disciplines. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 4, edited by Schif Ter, M. B., pp. 365438. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Gilbert, A. S., and Singer, B. H. 1982 Reassessing Zooarchaeological Quantification. World Archaeology 14 : 2140.Google Scholar
Gilbert, A. S., Singer, B. H., and Perkins, D. Jr. 1981 Quantification Experiments on Computer-Simulated Faunal Collections. Ossa 8 : 7994.Google Scholar
Gilbert, A. S., and Steinfeld, P. 1977 Faunal Remains from Dinkha Tepe, Northwestern Iran. Journal of Field Archaeology 4 : 329351.Google Scholar
Gilbert, B. M. 1969 Some Aspects of Diet and Butchering Techniques Among Prehistoric Indians of South Dakota. Plains Anthropologist 14 : 277294.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1979 On the Quantification of Vertebrate Archaeofaunas. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 2, edited by Schif Ter, M. B., pp. 199237. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1981 A Critical View of the Use of Archaeological Vertebrates in Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction. Journal of Ethnobiology 1 : 2838.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1984 Quantitative Zooarchaeology : Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1988 Danger Cave, Last Supper Cave, and Hanging Rock Shelter : The Faunas. Anthropological Papers Vol. 66, Pt. 1. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1991 Alpine Faunas from the White Mountains, California : Adaptive Change in the Late Prehistoric Great Basin? Journal of Archaeological Science 18 : 483506.Google Scholar
Hesse, B. 1982 Bias in the Zooarchaeological Record : Suggestions for Interpretation of Bone Counts in Faunal Samples from the Plains. In Plains Indian Studies : A Collection of Essays in Honor of John C. Ewers and Waldo R. Wedel, edited by Ubelaker, D. H. and Viola, H. J., pp. 157172. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology No. 30. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Hesse, B., and Wapnish, P. 1985 Animal Bone Archeology : From Objectives to Analysis. Manuals on Archeology No. 5. Taraxacum, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Hill, A. 1978 Taphonomical Background to Fossil Man— Problems in Palaeoecology. In Geological Background to Fossil Man, edited by Bishop, W. W., pp. 87101. Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Hill, A. 1979a Butchery and Natural Disarticulation : An Investigatory Technique. American Antiquity 44 : 739744.Google Scholar
Hill, A. 1979b Disarticulation and Scattering of Mammal Skeletons. Paleobiology 5 : 261274.Google Scholar
Hill, A. 1989 Bone Modification by Modern Spotted Hyenas. In Bone Modification, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Sorg, M., pp. 169178. Center for the Study of the First Americans, University of Maine, Orono.Google Scholar
Hill, A., and Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1984 Disarticulation Patterns of Some Modern East African Mammals. Paleobiology 10 : 366376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holtzman, R. C. 1979 Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Fossil Assemblage Composition. Paleobiology 5 : 7789.Google Scholar
Horton, D. R. 1984 Minimum Numbers : A Consideration. Journal of Archaeological Science 11 : 25 5271.Google Scholar
Hudson, J. (editor) 1993 From Bones to Behavior : Ethnoarchaeological and Experimental Contributions to the Interpretation of Faunal Remains. Occasional Paper No. 21. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. 1988 Science as a Process. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Jones, K. T. 1983 Forager Archaeology : The Ache of Eastern Paraguay. In Carnivores, Human Scavengers and Predators : A Question of Bone Technology, edited by LeMoine, G. M. and S, A.. Mac Eachern, pp. 171191. University of Calgary Archaeological Association, Calgary.Google Scholar
Kehoe, T. F., and Kehoe, A. B. 1960 Observations on the Butchering Technique at a Prehistoric Bison-Kill in Montana. American Antiquity 25 : 420423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, R. G. 1989 Why Does Skeletal Part Representation Differ Between Smaller and Larger Bovids at Klasies River Mouth and Other Archeological Sites? Journal of Archaeological Science 16 : 363381.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G., and Cruz-Uribe, K. 1984 The Analysis of Animal Bones from Archeological Sites. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Kusmer, K. D. 1990 Taphonomy of Owl Pellet Deposition. Journal of Paleontology 64 : 629637.Google Scholar
Lasota-Moskalewska, A., and Sulgostowska, Z. 1977 The Application of Contingency Table for Comparison of Archaeozoological Materials. Ossa 3/4 : 153168.Google Scholar
LeMoine, G. M., and Eachern, A. S. Mac (editors) 1983 Carnivores, Human Scavengers and Predators : A Question of Bone Technology. University of Calgary Archaeological Association, Calgary.Google Scholar
Lie, R. W. 1980 Minimum Number of Individuals from Osteological Samples. Norwegian Archaeological Review 13 : 2430.Google Scholar
Lie, R. W. 1983 Reply. Norwegian Archaeological Review 16 : 49.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1979a Faunal Analysis : An Outline of Method and Theory with Some Suggestions. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 13 : 2235.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1979b Available Meat from Faunal Remains : A Consideration of Techniques. American Antiquity 44 : 536546.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1982 Archaeofaunas and Subsistence Studies. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 5, edited by Schiffer, M. B., pp. 331393. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1984 Bone Density and Differential Survivorship of Fossil Classes. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3 : 259299.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1985 Bone Frequencies : Differential Transport, In Situ Destruction, and the MGUI. Journal of Archaeological Science 12 : 221236.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1987a On Zooarchaeological Measures of Socioeconomic Position and Cost-Efficient Meat Purchases. Historical Archaeology 21 : 5866.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1987b Zooarchaeology and Taphonomy : A General Consideration. Journal of Ethnobiology 7 : 93117.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1991a Prehistory of the Oregon Coast. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1991b Taphonomic Problems with Archaeological Analyses of Animal Carcass Utilization and Transport. In Beamers, Bobwhites, and Blue-Points : Tributes to the Career of Paul W. Parmalee, edited by Purdue, J. R., Klippel, W. E., and Styles, B. W., pp. 125138. Scientific Papers Vol. 23. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1992 Anatomical Considerations of Utility Curves in Zooarchaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science 19 : 722.Google Scholar
Mackin, J. H. 1963 Rational and Empirical Methods of Investigation in Geology. In The Fabric of Geology, edited by Albritton, C. C. Jr., pp. 135163. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Maltby, J. M. 1985 Patterns in Faunal Assemblage Variability. In Beyond Domestication in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Barker, G. and Gamble, C., pp. 3374. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Marean, C. W., and Spencer, L. M. 1991 Impact of Carnivore Ravaging on Zooarchaeological Measures of Element Abundance. American Antiquity 56 : 645658.Google Scholar
Meadow, R. H. 1981 Animal Bones— Problems for the Archaeologist Together with Some Possible Solutions. Paleorient 6 : 6577.Google Scholar
Miller, D. C. 1983 Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement, 4th ed. Longman, New York.Google Scholar
Morlan, R. E. 1983 Counts and Estimates of Taxonomic Abundance in Faunal Remains : Microtine Rodents from Bluefish Cave I. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 7 : 6176.Google Scholar
Morlan, R. E. 1989 Paleoecological Implications of Late Pleistocene and Holocene Microtine Rodents from the Bluefish Caves, Northern Yukon Territory. . Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 26 : 149156.Google Scholar
Nichol, R. K., and Creak, G. A. 1979 Matching Paired Elements Among Archaeological Bone Remains : A Computer Procedure and Some Practical Limitations. Newsletter of Computer Archaeology 14 : 616.Google Scholar
Nichol, R. K., and Wild, C. J. 1984 ‘Numbers of Individuals’ in Faunal Analysis : The Decay of Fish Bone in Archaeological Sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 11 : 3551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nitecki, M. H., and Nitecki, D. V. (editors) 1987 The Evolution of Human Hunting. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Noe-Nygaard, N. 1977 Butchering and Marrow Fracturing as a Taphonomic Factor in Archaeological Deposits. Paleobiology 3 : 218237.Google Scholar
Noe-Nygaard, N. 1987 Taphonomy in Archaeology with Special Emphasis on Man as a Biasing Factor. Journal of Danish Archaeology 6 : 752.Google Scholar
Payne, S. 1975 Partial Recovery and Sample Bias. In Archaeozoological Studies, edited by Clason, A. T., pp. 717. North Holland, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Perkins, D. Jr. 1973 A Critique on the Methods of Quantifying Faunal Remains from Archaeological Sites. In Domestikationforschung und Geschichte der Haustiere, edited by Matolcsi, J., pp. 367370. Academiai Kiado, Budapest.Google Scholar
Plug, C, and Plug, I. 1990 MNI Counts as Estimates of Species Abundance. South African Archaeological Bulletin 45 : 5357.Google Scholar
Plug, I. 1984 MNI Counts, Pits and Features. In Frontiers : Southern African Archaeology Today, edited by Hall, M. J., Avery, G., Avery, D. M., Wilson, M. L., and Humphreys, A. J. B., pp. 357362. BAR International Series 207. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Poplin, F. 1976 A propos du nombre de restes et du nombre d'individus dans les echantillons d'ossements. Cahiers du Centre de Recherches Prehistoriques 5 : 6174.Google Scholar
Potts, R. B. 1982 Lower Pleistocene Site Formation and Hominid Activities at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Ph. D. dissertation, Harvard University. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Potts, R. B. 1983 Foraging for Faunal Resources by Early Hominids at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. In Animals and Archaeology : 1. Hunters and Their Prey, edited by Clutton-Brock, J. and Grigson, C., pp. 5162. BAR International Series 163. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Potts, R. B. 1988 Early Hominid Activities at Olduvai. Aldine de Gruyter, New York.Google Scholar
Purdue, J. R., Styles, B. W., and Masulis, M. C. 1989 Faunal Remains and White-Tailed Deer Exploitation from a Late Woodland Upland Encampment : The Boschert Site (23SC609), St. Charles County, Missouri. Mid-Continental Journal of Archaeology 14 : 146163.Google Scholar
Rackham, J. 1983 Faunal Sample to Subsistence Economy : Some Problems in Reconstruction. In Integrating the Subsistence Economy, edited by Jones, M., pp. 251277. BAR International Series 181. British Archaeological Reports Oxford. Google Scholar
Rackham, J. 1986 Assessing the Relative Frequencies of Species by the Application of a Stochastic Model to a Zooarchaeological Database. In Database Management and Zooarchaeology, edited by Wijngaarden-Bakker, L. H. van, pp. 185192. Pact 14. Journal of the European Study Group on Physical, Chemical and Mathematical Techniques Applied to Archaeology, Strasbourg.Google Scholar
Reports, Oxford. 1987 Practicality and Realism in Archaeozoological Analysis and Interpretation. In Pragmatic Archaeology Theory in Crisis?, edited by Gaffney, C. F. and Gaffney, V. L., pp. 4769. BAR British Series 167. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Read, C. E. 1971 Animal Bones and Human Behavior : Approaches to Faunal Analysis in Archeology. Ph. D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Reid, J. J., Schiffer, M. B., and Neff, J. M. 1975 Archaeological Considerations of Intrasite Sampling. In Sampling in Archaeology, edited by Mueller, J. W., pp. 209224. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Richardson, P. R. K. 1980 Carnivore Damage to Antelope Bones and Its Archaeological Implications. Paleontologia Africana 23 : 109125.Google Scholar
Ringrose, T. J. 1993 Bone Counts and Statistics : A Critique. Journal of Archaeological Science 20 : 121157.Google Scholar
Russell, M. D. 1987 Mortuary practices at the Krapina Neandertal site. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 72 : 381397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salemme, M., Miotti, L., and Tonni, E. 1991 The Determination of Mammal Bones in Zooarchaeological Research. In Und Deya International Conference of Prehistory, Recent Developments in Western Mediterranean Prehistory : Archaeological Techniques, Technology and Theory, Vol. I : Archaeological Techniques and Technology, edited by Waldren, W. H., Ensenyat, J. A., and Kennard, R. C., pp 209-222. BAR International Series 573. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Schick, K. D., Toth, N., and Daeschler, E. 1989 An Early Paleontological Assemblage as an Archaeological Test Case. In Bone Modification, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Sorg, M., pp. 121137. Center for the Study of the First Americans, University of Maine, Orono.Google Scholar
Schiffer, M. B. 1976 Behavioral Archeology. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Schiffer, M. B., and House, J. H. 1977 An Approach to Assessing Scientific Significance. In Conservation Archaeology, edited by Schiffer, M. B. and Gumerman, G. J., pp. 249257. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Shennan, S. 1988 Quantifying Archaeology. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Shipman, P. 1979 What Are All These Bones Doing Here? Harvard Magazine Nov. -Dec. : 4246.Google Scholar
Shipman, P. 1981 Life History of a Fossil : An Introduction to Taphonomy and Paleoecology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Shotwell, J. A. 1955 An Approach to the Paleoecology of Mammals. Ecology 36 : 327337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shotwell, J. A. 1958 Inter-Community Relationships in Hemphillian (Mid-Pliocene) Mammals. Ecology 39 : 271282.Google Scholar
Simpson, G. G. 1960 Notes on the Measurement of Faunal Resemblance. American Journal of Science 258A : 300311.Google Scholar
Skibo, J. M., Schiffer, M. B., and Kowalski, N. 1989 Ceramic Style Analysis in Archaeology and Ethnoarchaeology : Bridging the Analytical Gap. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 8 : 388409.Google Scholar
Stenton, D. R. 1991 Caribou Population Dynamics and Thule Culture Adaptations on Southern Baffin Island, N. W. T. Arctic Anthropology 28(2) : 1543.Google Scholar
Stevens, S. S. 1946 On the Theory of Scales of Measurement. Science 103 : 677680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stiner, M. C. 1991 Food Procurement and Transport by Human and Non-human Predators. Journal of Archaeological Science 18 : 455182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stiner, M. C. 1992 Overlapping Species ‘Choice’ by Italian Upper Pleistocene Predators. Current Anthropology 33 : 433451.Google Scholar
Stiner, M. C. (editor) 1991 Human Predators and Prey Mortality. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Styles, B. W. 1981 Faunal Exploitation and Resource Selection : Early Late Woodland Subsistence in the Lower Illinois Valley. Northwestern University Archaeological Program, Evanston.Google Scholar
Thomas, D. H., and Mayer, D. 1983 Behavioral Faunal Analysis of Selected Horizons. In The Archaeology of Monitor Valley : 2. Gatecliff Shelter, by Thomas, D. H., pp. 353391. Anthropological Papers Vol. 59, Pt. 1. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Todd, L. C. 1987 Taphonomy of the Horner II Bone Bed. In The Horner Site : The Type Site of the Cody Cultural Complex, edited by Frison, G. C. and Todd, L. C., pp. 107198. Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
Todd, L. C, and Frison, G. C. 1992 Reassembly of Bison Skeletons from the Horner Site : A Study in Anatomical Refitting. In Piecing Together the Past : Applications of Refitting Studies in Archaeology, pp. 63-82, edited by Hofman, J. L. and Enloe, J. G.. BAR International Series 578. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Todd, L. C, and Rapson, D. J. 1988 Long Bone Fragmentation and Interpretation of Faunal Assemblages : Approaches to Comparative Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 15 : 307325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, A. 1981 Minimum Number Estimation Offers Minimal Insight in Faunal Analysis. Ossa 7 : 199201.Google Scholar
Turner, A. 1983 The Quantification of Relative Abundances in Fossil and Subfossil Bone Assemblages. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 33 : 311321.Google Scholar
Turner, A. 1984 Behavioural Inferences Based on Frequencies in Bone Assemblages from Archaeological Sites. In Frontiers : Southern African Archaeology Today, edited by Hall, M. J., Avery, G., Avery, D. M., Wilson, M. L. and Humphreys, A. J. B., pp. 363366. BAR International Series 207. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Turner, A., and Fieller, N. 1985 Considerations of Minimum Numbers : A Response to Horton. Journal of Archaeological Science 12 : 477183.Google Scholar
Uerpmann, H. -P. 1973 Animal Bone Finds and Economic Archaeology : A Critical Study of ‘Osteo-archaeological’ Method. World Archaeology 4 : 307332.Google Scholar
Villa, P., Courtin, J., and Helmer, D. 1988 Cannibalism in Old World Prehistory. Revista di Antropologia (Roma) 66 (Supplement) : 4764.Google Scholar
Villa, P., Bouville, C., Courtin, J., Helmar, D., Mahieu, E., Shipman, P., Belluomini, G., and Granca, M. 1986 Cannibalism in the Neolithic. Science 233 : 43137.Google Scholar
Villari, P. 1991 The Faunal Remains in the Bothros at Eolo (Lipari). Archaeo Zoologia 4(2) : 109126.Google Scholar
Voorhies, M. R. 1969 Taphonomy and Population Dynamics of an Early Pliocene Vertebrate Fauna, Knox County, Nebraska. Contributions to Geology Special Publication No. 1. University of Wyoming, Laramie.Google Scholar
Wapnish, P., and Hesse, B. 1991 Faunal Remains from Tel Dan : Perspectives on Animal Production at a Village, Urban and Ritual Center. Archaeo Zoologia 4(2) : 986.Google Scholar
Watson, J. P. N. 1979 The Estimation of the Relative Frequencies of Mammalian Species : Khirokitia 1972. Journal of A rchaeological Science 6 : 127137.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1952a Observations on the Butchering Technique of Some Aboriginal Peoples : 1. American Antiquity 17 : 337338.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1952b Suggestions on the Butchering Technique of the Inhabitants of the Dodd and Phillips Ranch Sites in Oahe Reservoir Area. Plains Archaeological Conference Newsletter 5 : 2025.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1953a A Method of Calculating the Dietary Percentage of Various Food Animals Utilized by Aboriginal Peoples. American Antiquity 19 : 396398.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1953b Observations on the Butchering Technique of Some Aboriginal Peoples No. 2. American Antiquity 19 : 160164.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1953c Studying Osteological Materal. Plains Archaeological Conference Newsletter 6(1) : 5867.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1954 Observations on the Butchering Technique of Some Aboriginal Peoples Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6. American Antiquity 19 : 254264.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1955 Observations on the Butchering Technique of Some Aboriginal Peoples Numbers 7, 8, and 9. American Antiquity 21 : 170178.Google Scholar
White, T. E. 1956 The Study of Osteological Materials in the Plains. American Antiquity 21 : 401404.Google Scholar
Wild, C. J., and Nichol, R. K. 1983a A Note on Rolf W. Lie's Approach to Estimating Minimum Numbers from Osteological Samples. Norwegian Archaeological Review 16 : 4548.Google Scholar
Wild, C. J., and Nichol, R. K. 1983b Estimation of the Original Number of Individuals from Paired Bone Counts Using Estimators of the Krantz Type. Journal of Field Archaeology 10 : 337344.Google Scholar
Wolff, R. G. 1973 Hydrodynamic Sorting and Ecology of a Pleistocene Mammalian Assemblage from California (U. S. A.). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 13 : 91101.Google Scholar
Wood, W. R. 1962 Notes on the Bison Bone from the Paul Brave, Huff, and Demery Sites (Oahe Reservoir). Plains Anthropologist 7 : 201204.Google Scholar
Wood, W. R. 1968 Mississippian Hunting and Butchering Patterns : Bone from the Vista Shelter, 23SR-20, Missouri. American Antiquity 33 : 170179.Google Scholar
Zeder, M. A. 1991 Feeding Cities : Specialized Animal Economy in the Ancient Near East. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar