Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T15:03:43.386Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

New Evidence for Late Paleoindian-Early Archaic Subsistence Behavior in the Western Great Lakes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Steven R. Kuehn
Steven R. Kuehn*
Affiliation:
Museum Archaeology Program, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 816 State Street, Madison, WI 53706
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Late Paleoindian and Early Archaic subsistence behavior in the Western Great Lakes is an important research issue that has been hindered by a lack of zooarchaeological remains, as well as disagreements over the nature of the paleoenvironmental record and human foraging behavior. Prior reconstructions of early subsistence behavior have centered on a focused, big-game hunting strategy, despite very little solid evidence. Recently, two archaeological sites in northern Wisconsin containing Late Paleoindian faunal material have been excavated, the Deadman Slough site (47PR46) and the Sucices site (47DG11). The data from these sites, and similar recently discovered sites in northeastern North America, suggest that Late Paleoindian and Early Archaic peoples employed a generalized foraging strategy, utilizing a broad range of animal species from a wide array of environmental settings. This new archaeological evidence is utilized in conjunction with detailed paleoenvironmental data and information from cultural ecological studies to develop a model of Late Paleoindian-Early Archaic subsistence behavior for the Western Great Lakes.

Résumé

Résumé

La falta o ausencia de restos zooarqueológicos, los desacuerdos sobre dos temas, la naturaleza e interpretación del registro paleoamáiental o paleoclimdtico, y la naturaleza del comportamiento humano de caceráa y recolección, han servido como obstáculos para la investigación de comportamientos de subsistencia en la región de los Grandes Lagos durante el período conocido como el Paleoindio Tardío. Previas reconstrucciones del comportamiento de subsistencia en esta írea se han enfocado hacia la caza mayor, a pesar de la poca evidencia que existe para ello. Durante la reciente excavación de dos sitios en el norte del estado de Wisconsin (E.U.A.) se han recobrado restos de fauna confechas en el Paleoindio. Estos sitios son Deadman Slough (47PR46) y Sucices (47DG11). Los datos proveniente de estos sitios, así como de sitios similares, recientemente descubiertos en el noreste de América del Norte, sugieren que las problaciones de Paleoindio tardío usaron estrategias de caza mayor y recolección generalizadas, utilizando un amplio rango de especies de animales de extensos y variados medios ambientales. En este estudio hemos combinado tres fuentes de información: (1) la evidencia arqueológica reciente, (2) datos detallados sobre el paleoambiente, y (3) la ecología cultural de la región para desarrollar un modelo del comportamiento de subsistencia para la región occidental del área de los Grandes Lagos.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 63 , Issue 3 , July 1998 , pp. 457 - 476
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1998

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Becker, G. C. 1983 The Fishes of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Benchley, E. D., and Whitman, L. 1989 Final Report of Site Evaluation Studies at Twelve Prehistoric Sites, Lakewood District, Nicolet National Forest, Wisconsin. Report of Investigations No. 97. Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1981 Bones : Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Brown, J., and Cleland, C. E. 1968 The Late Glacial and Early Postglacial Faunal Resources in Midwestern Biomes Newly Opened to Human Adaptation. In The Quaternary of Illinois, edited by Bergstrom, R. E., pp. 114–122. Special Publication No. 14. College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana.Google Scholar
Brown, J. A., and Vierra, R. K. 1983 What Happened in the Middle Archaic? Introduction to an Ecological Approach to Koster Site Archaeology. In Archaic Hunters and Gatherers in the American Midwest, edited by Phillips, J. L. and Brown, J.A. pp. 165–195. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Buckmaster, M. M., and Paquette, J. R. 1988 The Gorto Site : Preliminary Report on a Late Paleoindian Site in Marquette County, Michigan. The Wisconsin Archeologist 69 : 88–112.Google Scholar
Burch, E. S. 1972 The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource. American Antiquity 37 : 339–368.Google Scholar
Burt, W. H. 1957 Mammals of the Great Lakes Region. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1982 Archaeology as Human Ecology : Method and Theory for a Contextual Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, A. 1952 Handbook of Turtles : The Turtles of the United States, Canada, and Baja California. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York.Google Scholar
Clark, J. A. 1995 The Lake Poygan Phase : A Late Paleoindian Manifestation in East Central Wisconsin. Paper presented at the 40th Midwest Archaeological Conference, South Beloit, Illinois.Google Scholar
Clayton, L., Attig, J. W., Mickelson, D. M., and Johnson, M. D. 1992 Glaciation of Wisconsin. Education Series No. 36. Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Cleland, C. E. 1965 Barren Ground Caribou (Rangifer articus) from an Early Man Site in Southeastern Michigan. American Antiquity 30 : 350–351.Google Scholar
Cleland, C. E. 1966 The Prehistoric Animal Ecology and Ethnozoology of the Upper Great Lakes Region. Anthropological Papers No. 29. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleland, C. E. 1976 The Focal-Diffuse Model : An Evolutionary Perspective on the Prehistoric Cultural Adaptations of the Eastern United States. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 1 : 59–76.Google Scholar
Cleland, C. E. 1982 The Inland Shore Fishery of the Northern Great Lakes : Its Development and Importance in Prehistory. American Antiquity 47 : 761–784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conant, R., and Collins, J. T. 1991 A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians : Eastern and Central North America. 3rd ed. Peterson Field Guide Series No. 12. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.Google Scholar
Cooper, J. M. 1938 Snares, Deadfalls, and Other Traps of the Northern Algonquians and Northern Athapaskans. Anthropological Series No. 5. Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Curran, M. L., and Dincauze, D. F. 1977 Paleoindians and Paleo-Lakes : New Data from the Connecticut Drainage. In Amerinds and Their Paleoenvironments in Northeastern North America. edited by Newman, W. S. and Salwen, B., pp. 333–348. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 288. Academy of Sciences, New York.Google Scholar
Curtis, J. T. 1959 The Vegetation of Wisconsin : An Ordination of Plant Communities. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Custer, J. E, and Stewart, R. M. 1990 Environment, Analogy, and Early Paleoindian Economies in Northeastern North America. In Early Paleoindian Economies of Eastern North America, edited by Tankersley, K. B. and Isaac, B.L. pp. 303–322. Research in Economic Anthropology No, 5. Jai Press, Greenwich, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Davis, M. B. 1983 Holocene Vegetational History of the Eastern United States. In Late-Quaternary Environments of the United States. Volume 2 : The Holocene, edited by Wright, H. E., Jr., pp. 166–181. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Dawson, K. C. A. 1983 Cummins Site : A Late Paleo-Indian (Piano) Site at Thunder Bay, Ontario. Ontario Archaeology 39 : 3–31.Google Scholar
Deller, D. B., and Ellis, C. J. 1984 Crowfield : A Preliminary Report on a Probable Paleoindian Cremation in Southwestern Ontario. Archaeology of Eastern North America 12 : 41–71.Google Scholar
Dent, R. J. 1981 Amerind Society and the Environment : Evidence from the Upper Delaware Valley. In Anthropological Careers : Essays Presented to the Anthropological Society of Washington during Its Centennial Year, 1979, pp. 74–85. Anthropological Society of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Dincauze, D. E, and Mulholland, M. T. 1977 Early and Middle Archaic Site Distributions and Habitats in Southern New England. In Amerinds and Their Paleoenvironments in Northeastern North America, edited by Newman, W. S. and Salwen, B., pp. 439-156. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 288. Academy of Sciences, New York.Google Scholar
Dumont, J. 1981 The Paleoindian-Early Archaic Continuum : An Environmental Approach. Archaeology of Eastern North . America 9 : 18–37.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, L. 1978 Paleo-Indian Settlement Pattern in the Hudson and Delaware River Drainages. Occasional Publications in Northeastern Anthropology No. 4. Department of Anthropology, Franklin Pierce college, Rindge, New Hampshire.Google Scholar
Ellis, C. J., and Deller, D. B. 1990 Paleo-Indians. In The Archaeology of Southern Ontario to A.D. 1650, edited by Ellis, C. J. and Ferris, N., pp. 37–64. Occasional Publication No. 5. London Chapter, Ontario Archaeological Society, London.Google Scholar
Ellis, C. J., Kenyon, I. T., and Spence, M. W 1990 The Archaic. In The Archaeology of Southern Ontario to A.D. 1650, edited by Ellis, C. J. and Ferris, N., pp. 65–124. Occasional Publication No. 5. London Chapter, Ontario Archaeological Society, London.Google Scholar
Engelbrecht, W. E., and Seyfert, C. K. 1994 Paleoindian Watercraft : Evidence and Implications. North American Archaeologist 15 : 221–234.Google Scholar
Fitting, J. E. 1975 The Archaeology of Michigan : A Guide to the Prehistory of the Great Lakes Region. 2nd ed. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.Google Scholar
Fox, W. A. 1975 The Paleo-Indian Lakehead Complex. In Canadian Archaeological Association Papers, edited by Nunn, P., pp. 28–53. Research Report No. 6. Historic Sites Branch, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Toronto.Google Scholar
Fox, W. A. 1980 The Lakehead Complex : New Insights. In Collected Archaeological Papers, edited by Melvin, D. S., pp. 127–151. Archaeological Research Report No. 13. Historical Planning and Research Branch, Ontario Ministry of Culture and Recreation, Toronto.Google Scholar
Franzen, J. G. 1986 Prehistoric Settlement on the Hiawatha National Forest, Michigan : A Preliminary Locational Model. Cultural Resource Management Report No. 4. Hiawatha National Forest, Escanaba, Michigan. Google Scholar
Franzen, J. G. 1987 Test Excavation and Locational Analysis of Prehistoric Sites in the Hiawatha National Forest, Michigan : 1985 Season. Cultural Resource Management Report No. 5. Hiawatha National Forest, Escanaba, Michigan.Google Scholar
Funk, R. E. 1978 Post-Pleistocene Adaptations. In Northeast, edited by Trigger, B. G., pp. 16–27. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15, W. C. Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Gaudreau, D. M. 1988 The Distribution of Late Quaternary Forest Regions in the Northeast : Pollen Data, Physiography, and the Prehistoric Record. In Holocene Human Ecology in Northeastern North America, edited by Nicholas, G. P., pp. 215–256. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L. 1987 The Context of the Hensler Petroglyphs and Its Implications. The Wisconsin Archeologist 68 : 412–41 Google Scholar
Goldstein, L., and Kind, R. 1987 The Early Vegetation of the Region. In The Southeastern Wisconsin Archaeology Project : 1986-87 and Project Summary, edited by Goldstein, L., pp. 18–37. Report of Investigations No. 88. Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Goodyear, A. C. 1975 A Research Design for the Study of Dalton Settlement-Subsistence Activities in the Cache River Basin. In The Cache River Archeological Project : An Experiment in Contract Archeology, assembled by M. B. Schiffer and J. H. House, pp. 205–215. Research Series No. 8. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Lafayette.Google Scholar
Goodyear, A. C. 1982 The Chronological Position of the Dalton Horizon in the Southeastern United States. American Antiquity 47 : 382–395.Google Scholar
Graham, R. W, and Mead, J. I. 1987 Environmental Fluctuations and Evolution of Mammalian Faunas during the Last Deglaciation in North America. In North America and Adjacent Oceans during the Last Deglaciation, edited by Ruddiman, W. F. and Wright, H.E. Jr., pp. 371^102. The Geology of North America, vol. K-3. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Guilday, J. E., and Parmalee, P. W. 1982 Vertebrate Faunal Remains from Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Washington County, Pennsylvania : Summary and Interpretation. In Meadowcroft : Collected Papers on the Archaeology of Meadowcroft Rockshelter and the Cross Creek Drainage, edited by Carlisle, R. C. and Adovasio, J.M. pp. 163–174. Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Habeck, J. R. and Curtis, J. T.. 1959 Forest Cover and Deer Population Densities in Early Northern Wisconsin. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 48 : 49–56.Google Scholar
Harrison, C. 1995 Late Paleo-Indian Manifestations around the Western Superior Basin. In The Paleo-Indian of Southern St. Louis Co., Minnesota : The Reservoir Lakes Complex, by C. Harrison, E. Redepenning, C. L. Hill, G. Rapp, S. E. Aschenbrenner, J. K. Huber, and S. C. Mulholland, pp. 6–16. University of Minnesota, Duluth.Google Scholar
Harrison, C, and Redepenning, E. 1995 Artifact Categories. In The Paleo-Indian of Southern St. Louis Co., Minnesota : The Reservoir Lakes Complex, by Harrison, C., Redepenning, E., Hill, C. L., Rapp, G., Aschenbrenner, S. E., Huber, J. K., and Mulholland, S. C., pp. 23–88. Archaeometry Laboratory, University of Minnesota, Duluth.Google Scholar
Huber, J. K. 1995 Vegetational History. In The Paleo-Indian of Southern St. Louis Co., Minnesota : The Reservoir Lakes Complex, by C. Harrison, E. Redepenning, C. L. Hill, G. Rapp, S. E. Aschenbrenner, J. K. Huber, and S. C. Mulholland, pp. 125–134. University of Minnesota, Duluth.Google Scholar
Jackson, H. T. T. 1961 Mammals of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Jackson, L., and McKillop, H. 1991 Approaches to Paleo-Indian Economy : An Ontario and Great Lakes Perspective. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 16 : 34–68.Google Scholar
Jacobson, G. L., Webb, T. III, and Grimm, E. C. 1987 Patterns and Rates of Vegetation Change during the Deglaciation of Eastern North America. In North America and Adjacent Oceans During the Last Deglaciation, edited by W F. Ruddiman and H. E. Wright, Jr., pp. 277–288. The Geology of North America, vol. K-3. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Jefferies, R. W., and Lynch, B. M. 1983 Dimensions of Middle Archaic Cultural Adaptation at the Black Earth Site, Saline County, Illinois. In Archaic Hunters and Gatherers in the American Midwest, edited by Phillips, J. L. and Brown, J.A. pp. 299–322. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Jones, J. K., and Birney, E. C. 1988 Handbook of the Mammals of the North-Central States. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Julig, P. J. 1991 Late Pleistocene Archaeology in the Great Lakes Region of North America : Current Problems and Prospects. Revista de Arqueologia Americana 3 : 7–30.Google Scholar
Julig, P. J. 1994 The Cummins Site Complex and Paleoindian Occupations in the Northwestern Lake Superior Region. Ontario Archaeological Reports 2. Ontario Heritage Foundation, Toronto.Google Scholar
King, F. B. 1978 Additional Cautions on the Use of GLO Survey Records in Vegetational Reconstructions in the Midwest. American Antiquity 43 : 99–103.Google Scholar
King, F. B., and Graham, R. W. 1981 Effects of Ecological and Paleoecological Patterns of Subsistence and Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions. American Antiquity 46 : 128–142.Google Scholar
Klippel, W. E., and Maddox, J. 1977 The Early Archaic of Willow Branch. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 2 : 99–130.Google Scholar
Leechman, D. 1951 Bone Grease. American Antiquity 16 : 355–356.Google Scholar
Lundelius, E. L., Graham, R. W., Anderson, E., Guilday, J., 1983 Terrestrial Vertebrate Faunas. In Late-Quaternary Environments of the United States, Volume 1 : The Late Pleistocene, edited by Porter, S., pp. 311–353. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1979 Faunal Analysis : An Outline of Method and Theory with Some Suggestions. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 13 : 22–35.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1994 Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Martin, L. 1965 The Physical Geography of Wisconsin. 3rd ed. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Mason, R. J. 1962 The Paleo-Indian Tradition in Eastern North America. Current Anthropology 3 : 227–278.Google Scholar
Mason, R. J. 1963 Two Late Paleoindian Complexes in Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 44 : 199–211.Google Scholar
Mason, R. J. 1981 Great Lakes Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Mason, R. J. 1986 The Paleoindian Tradition. The Wisconsin Archeologist 67 : 181–206.Google Scholar
Mason, R. J., and Irwin, C. 1960 An Eden-Scottsbluff Burial in Northeastern Wisconsin. American Antiquity 26 : 43–57.Google Scholar
McNett, C. W. (editor) 1985 Shawnee Minisink : A Stratified Paleoindian-Archaic Site in the Upper Delaware Valley of Pennsylvania. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
McNett, C. W., McMillan, B. A., and Marshall, S. B. 1977 The Shawnee-Minisink Site. In Amerinds and Their Paleoenvironments in Northeastern North America, edited by Newman, W. and Salwen, B., pp. 282–296. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences No. 288. Academy of Sciences, New York.Google Scholar
Medlock, R. C. 1975 Faunal Analysis. In The Cache River Archeological Project : An Experiment in Contract Archeology, assembled by M. B. Schiffer and J. H. House, pp. 223–242. Research Series No. 8. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Lafayette.Google Scholar
Meinholz, N. M., and Kuehn, S. R. 1995 Late Paleoindian Ceremonialism in the Western Great Lakes : New Information from the Deadman Slough Site. Paper presented at the 40th Midwest Archaeological Conference, South Beloit, Illinois.Google Scholar
Meinholz, N. M., and Kuehn, S. R. 1996 The Deadman Slough Site : Late Paleoindian/Early Archaic and Woodland Occupations along the Flambeau River, Price County, Wisconsin. Archaeology Research Series No. 4. Museum Archaeology Program, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Meltzer, D. J. 1988 Late Pleistocene Human Adaptations in Eastern North America. Journal of World Prehistory 2 : 1–52.Google Scholar
Meltzer, D. J., and Smith, B. D. 1986 Paleoindian and Early Archaic Subsistence Strategies in Eastern North America. In Foraging, Collecting, and Harvesting : Archaic Period Subsistence and Settlement in the Eastern Woodlands, edited by Neusius, S. W., pp. 3–32. Occasional Paper No. 6. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Moffat, C. R., Speth, J. M., Arzigian, C. M., Theler, J. L., and Godfrey, A. 1991 Archaeological Site Evaluations at Eight Lakes in the Wisconsin River Headwaters. Reports of Investigations No. 118. Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, University of Wisconsin, La Crosse.Google Scholar
Morgan, A. V. 1987 Late Wisconsin and Early Holocene Paleoenvironments of East-Central North America based on Assemblages of Fossil Coleoptera. In North America and Adjacent Oceans during the Last Deglaciation, edited by Ruddiman, W. F. and Wright, H.E. Jr., pp. 353–370. The Geology of North America, vol. K-3. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Morse, D. E, Anderson, D. G., and Goodyear, A. C. 1996 The Pleistocene-Holocene Transition in the Eastern United States. In Humans at the End of the Ice Age : The Archaeology of the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition, edited by Straus, L. G., B. V. Eriksen, J. M. Erlandson, and D. R. Yesner, pp. 319–338. Plenum Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulholland, S. C. 1995 Conclusions : Northern Minnesota Paleo-Indian Cultures. In The Paleo-Indian of Southern St. Louis Co., Minnesota : The Reservoir Lakes Complex, by C., Harrison, Redepenning, E., Hill, C. L., Rapp, G., Aschenbrenner, S. E., Huber, J. K., and Mulholland, S. C., pp. 135–141. University of Minnesota, Duluth.Google Scholar
Mulholland, S. C., Mulholland, S. L., Peters, G. R., Huber, J. K., 1997 Paleo-Indian Occupations in Northeastern Minnesota : How Early? North American Archaeologist 18 : 371–100.Google Scholar
Nelson, R. K. 1973 Hunters of the Northern Forest. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Neusius, S. W. 1986 Generalized and Specialized Resource Utilization during the Archaic Period : Implications of the Koster Site Faunal Record. In Foraging, Collecting, and Harvesting : Archaic Period Subsistence and Settlement in the Eastern Woodlands, edited by Neusius, S. W., pp. 117–144. Occasional Paper No. 6. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Newman, M., and Julig, P. J. 1990 The Identification of Protein Residues on Lithic Artifacts from a Stratified Boreal Forest Site. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 13 : 119–132.Google Scholar
Nicholas, G. P. 1987 Rethinking the Early Archaic. Archaeology of Eastern North America 15 : 99–124.Google Scholar
Nicholas, G. P. 1994 Prehistoric Human Ecosystems in the Northeast : Interpreting Past Landscapes and Land Use. In Great Lakes Archaeology and Paleoecology : Exploring Interdisciplinary Initiatives for the Nineties, edited by R. 1. MacDonald, pp. 117–140. Quaternary Sciences Institute, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario.Google Scholar
Novitzki, R. P. 1979 An Introduction to Wisconsin Wetlands : Plants, Hydrology, and Soils. U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, and University of Wisconsin- Extension, Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Oesch, R. D. 1984 Missouri Naiades : A Guide to the Mussels of Missouri. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City.Google Scholar
Overstreet, D. F. 1993 Chesrow : A Paleoindian Complex in the Southern Lake Michigan Basin. Case Studies in Great Lakes Archaeology No. 2. Great Lakes Archaeological Press, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Palmer, H. A. 1954 A Review of the Interstate Park, Wisconsin Bison Find. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 61 : 313–319.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1959 Animal Remains from the Modoc Rock Shelter Site, Randolph County, Illinois. In Summary Report of the Modoc Rock Shelter : 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956, by M. L. Fowler, pp. 61–65. Reports of Investigations No. 8. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1967 The Fresh-Water Mussels of Illinois. Popular Science Series No. 8. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1968 Cave and Archaeological Faunal Deposits as Indicators of Post-Pleistocene Animal Populations and Distribution in Illinois. In The Quaternary of Illinois, edited by Bergstrom, R. E., pp. 104–113. Special Publication No. 14. College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana.Google Scholar
Peers, L. 1985 Ontario Paleo-Indians and Caribou Predation. Ontario Archaeology 43 : 3l-41.Google Scholar
Petersen, J. B. 1995 Preceramic Archaeological Manifestations in the Far Northeast : A Review of Current Research. Archaeology of Eastern North America 23 : 207–230. Google Scholar
Petersen, J. B., Hamilton, N. D., Adovasio, J. M., and McPherron, A. L. 1984 Netting Technology and the Antiquity of Fish Exploitation in Eastern North America. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 9 : 199–226.Google Scholar
Pond, A. W. 1937 Wisconsin Joins Ranks of Oldest Inhabited Areas in America. The Wisconsin Archeologist 17 : 51–54.Google Scholar
Quimby, G. I. 1960 Indian Life in the Upper Great Lakes. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Reitz, E. J., Scott, S. L., and Moore, K. 1987 Zooarchaeology Theory and Method. In The Zooarchaeology of Eastern North America : History, Method and Theory, and Bibliography, edited by Bogan, A. E. and Robison, N.D. pp. 27–65. Miscellaneous Paper No. 12. Tennessee Anthropological Association, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Ritzenthaler, R. E. 1972 The Pope Site : A Scottsbluff Cremation? in Waupaca County. The Wisconsin Archeologist 53 : 15–19.Google Scholar
Ritzenthaler, R. E. 1966 Birds of North America. Golden Press, New York.Google Scholar
Ross, W. 1995 The Interlakes Composite : A Re-Definition of the Initial Settlement of the Agassiz-Minong Peninsula. The Wisconsin Archeologist 76 : 244–268.Google Scholar
Rusch, L. A., and Penman, J. T. 1984 Transportation Archaeology in Wisconsin : The 1983 Field Season. Manuscript on file, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Salzer, R. J. 1969 An Introduction to the Archaeology of Northern Wisconsin. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Salzer, R. J. 1974 The Wisconsin North Lakes Project : A Preliminary Report. In Aspects of Upper Great Lakes Anthropology : Papers in Honor of Lloyd A. Wilford, edited by Johnson, E., pp. 40–54. Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. 11. Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Schorger, A. W. 1953 The White-Tailed Deer in Early Wisconsin. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Utters 42 : 197–247.Google Scholar
Semken, H. A. 1983 Holocene Mammalian Biogeography and Climatic Change in the Eastern and Central United States. In Late- Quaternary Environments of the United States. Volume 2 : The Holocene, edited by Wright, H. E., Jr., pp. 182–207. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Shay, C. T. 1971 The Itasca Bison Kill Site : An Ecological Analysis. Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Smith, B. D. 1986 The Archaeology of the Southeastern United States : From Dalton to de Soto, 10,500-500 B.P. Advances in World Archaeology 5 : 1–92.Google Scholar
Speth, J. D. 1990 Seasonality, Resource Stress, and Food Sharing in So- Called “Egalitarian” Foraging Societies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 9 : 148–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Speth, J. D., and Spielman, K. A. 1983 Energy Source, Protein Metabolism, and Hunter- Gatherer Subsistence Strategies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeologist 2 : 1–31.Google Scholar
Spiess, A. E., Curran, M. L., and Grimes, J. R. 1985 Caribou (Rangifer tarandus L.) Bones from New England Paleoindian Sites. North American Archaeologist 6 : 145–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stahl, P. W. 1982 On Small Mammal Remains in Archaeological Context. American Antiquity 47 : 822–829.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stahl, P. W. 1996 The Recovery and Interpretation of Micro vertebrate Bone Assemblages from Archaeological Contexts. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 3 : 31–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinbring, J. 1974 The Preceramic Archaeology of Northern Minnesota. In Aspects of Upper Great Lakes Anthropology : Papers in Honor of Lloyd A. Wilford, edited by Johnson, E., pp. 64–73. Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. 11. Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.Google Scholar
Steinbring, J., and Buchner, A. P. 1980 The Caribou Lake Complex : A Provisional Definition. In Directions in Manitoba Prehistory : Papers in Honour of Chris Vickers, edited by Pettipas, L., pp. 25–35. Association of Manitoba Archaeologists and Manitoba Archaeological Society, Winnipeg.Google Scholar
Stewart, A. 1994 Relating Environmental Change to Cultural Behavior in the Late Pleistocene Great Lakes Region. In Great Lakes Archaeology and Paleoecology : Exploring Interdisciplinary Initiatives for the Nineties, edited by MacDonald, R. I., pp. 141–154. Quaternary Sciences Institute, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario.Google Scholar
Stoltman, J. B. 1978 Temporal Models in Prehistory : An Example from Eastern North America. Current Anthropology 19 : 703–746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoltman, J. B., Behm, J. A., and Palmer, H. A. 1984 The Bass Site : A Hardin Quarry/Workshop in Southwestern Wisconsin. In Prehistoric Chert Exploitation : Studies from the Midcontinent, edited by Butler, B. M. and May, E.E. pp. 197–224. Occasional Paper No. 2. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Storck, P. L., and Spiess, A. E. 1994 The Significance of New Faunal Identifications Attributed to an Early Paleoindian (Gainey Complex) Occupation at the Udora Site, Ontario, Canada. American Antiquity 59 : 121–142.Google Scholar
Stothers, D. M. 1996 Resource Procurement and Band Territories : A Model for Lower Great Lakes Paleoindian and Early Archaic Settlement Systems. Archaeology of Eastern North America 24 : 173–216.Google Scholar
Styles, B. W. 1981 Faunal Exploitation and Resource Selection : Early Late Woodland Subsistence in the Lower Illinois Valley. Scientific Papers No. 3. Archaeological Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.Google Scholar
Styles, B. W., Ahler, S. R., and Fowler, M. L. 1983 Modoc Rock Shelter Revisited. In Archaic Hunters and Gatherers in the American Midwest, edited by Phillips, J. L. and Brown, J.A. pp. 261–297. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Theler, J. L. 1987 Woodland Tradition Economic Strategies : Animal Resource Utilization in Southwestern Wisconsin and Northeastern Iowa. Report No. 17. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Vehik, S. C. 1977 Bone Fragmentation and Bone Grease Manufacturing : A Review of Their Archaeological Use and Potential. The Plains Anthropologist 22 : 169–182.Google Scholar
Verme, L. J. 1965 Swamp Conifer Deeryards in Northern Michigan : Their Ecology and Management. Journal of Forestry 63 : 523–531.Google Scholar
Verme, L. J. 1983 Vegetational History of the Eastern United States, 25,000 to 10,000 Years Ago. In Late-Quaternary Environments of, the United States, Volume 1 : The Late Pleistocene, edited by Porter, S., pp. 294–310. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Whelan, M. K. 1990 Late Woodland Subsistence Systems and Settlement Size in the Mille Lacs Area. In The Woodland Tradition in the Western Great Lakes : Papers Presented to Elden Johnson, edited by Gibbon, G. E., pp. 55–76. Publications in Anthropology No. 4. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, B. 1981 Foraging Strategies in the Boreal Forest : An Analysis of Cree Hunting and Gathering. In Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies, edited by Winterhalder, B. and Smith, E.A. pp. 66–98. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Yerkes, R. 1981 The Potential of Fish Utilization in Riverine Environments. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 6 : 207–217.Google Scholar