Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-v2bm5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-12T06:09:05.892Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

HOW TO MAKE A POLITY (IN THE CENTRAL MESA VERDE REGION)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 February 2017

Stefani A. Crabtree ,
R. Kyle Bocinsky ,
Paul L. Hooper ,
Susan C. Ryan  and
Timothy A. Kohler
Stefani A. Crabtree
Affiliation:
Washington State University, Department of Anthropology, Pullman, WA99163; Université de Franche-Comté, Maison des Sciences de l'Homme et l'Environnement, Besançon, 25030France
R. Kyle Bocinsky
Affiliation:
Washington State University, Department of Anthropology, Pullman, WA 99163; Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO 81321
Paul L. Hooper
Affiliation:
Emory University, Department of Anthropology, Atlanta, GA 30322
Susan C. Ryan
Affiliation:
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO 81321
Timothy A. Kohler*
Affiliation:
Washington State University, Department of Anthropology, Pullman, WA99163; The Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM87501; Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO 81321
*
([email protected], corresponding author)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The degree to which prehispanic societies in the northern upland Southwest were hierarchical or egalitarian is still debated and seems likely to have changed through time. This paper examines the plausibility of village-spanning polities in the northern Southwest by simulating the coevolution of hierarchy and warfare using extensions to the Village Ecodynamics Project's agent-based model. We additionally compile empirical data on the population size distribution of habitations and ritual spaces (kivas) and the social groups that used them in three large regions of the Pueblo Southwest and analyze these through time. All lines of evidence refute an “autonomous village” model during the Pueblo II period (A.D. 890–1145); rather, they support the existence of village-spanning polities during the Pueblo II and probably into the Pueblo III period (A.D. 1145–1285) in some areas. One or more polities connecting the northern Southwest, with tribute flowing to an apex in Chaco Canyon, appears plausible during Pueblo II for the areas we examine. During Pueblo III, more local organizations likely held sway until depopulation in the late thirteenth century.

El grado de igualitarismo o jerarquización social en el seno de las sociedades prehispánicas del norte de las tierras altas del suroeste de Estados Unidos y los cambios de dicho aspecto a través del tiempo continúan siendo objeto de debate. Este trabajo examina la plausibilidad del surgimiento de sistemas de gobierno a nivel de villas múltiples en la región del Suroeste a través de simulaciones sobre la coevolución de la jerarquía y del conflicto utilizando una extensión de la modelización basada en agentes del proyecto Village Ecodynamics. Además, recopilamos datos empíricos sobre la distribución de los tamaños poblacionales en los lugares de habitación y los espacios rituales (kivas), y sobre los grupos sociales que las utilizaron, para tres de las mayores regiones del Suroeste norteamericano, analizando estos datos a través del tiempo. Todas evidencias refutan el modelo de villas autónomas durante el periodo Pueblo II (890–1145 d.C.). Al contrario, las evidencias sugieren el surgimiento de sistemas de gobierno a nivel de villas múltiples durante el periodo Pueblo II y probablemente durante el Pueblo III (1145–1285 d.C.) en algunas áreas. Parece plausible que durante el periodo Pueblo II, uno o más sistemas de gobierno conectaron la zona norte del suroeste de Estados Unidos mediante un sistema de tributos que fluyó hacia un epicentro situado en Chaco Canyon. Probablemente durante el periodo Pueblo III y hasta la despoblación de la región del final del siglo XIII, las organizaciones locales ganaron en influencia.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 82 , Issue 1 , January 2017 , pp. 71 - 95
Copyright
Copyright © 2017 by the Society for American Archaeology 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adler, Michael A., and Wilshusen, Richard H. 1990 Large-Scale Integrative Facilities in Tribal Societies: Cross-cultural and Southwestern U.S. Examples. World Archaeology 22:133–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aitchison, J., and Brown, J. A. C. 1957 The Lognormal Distribution with Special Reference to Its Uses in Economics. University of Cambridge Department of Applied Economics Monograph 5, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, https://www.amazon.com/Lognormal-Distribution-Special-Reference-Economics/dp/B0010IFH7W.Google Scholar
Albert, Réka, Jeong, Hawoong, and Barabási, Albert-László 1999 Internet: Diameter of the World-Wide Web. Nature 401:130–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alberti, Gianmarco 2014 Modeling Group Size and Scalar Stress by Logistic Regression from an Archaeological Perspective. PLoS ONE 9 (3):e91510.Google Scholar
Auerbach, Felix 1913 Das Gesetz der Bevolkerungskonzentration. Petermans Geographische Mitteilungen LIV:73–75.Google Scholar
Benson, Larry V. 2010 Who Provided Maize to Chaco Canyon after the Mid-12th-Century Drought? Journal of Archaeological Science 37:621–629.Google Scholar
Bernardini, Wesley 1996 Transitions in Social Organization: A Predictive Model from Southwestern Archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 15:372–402.Google Scholar
Bettencourt, Luís M. A. 2013 The Origins of Scaling in Cities. Science 340:1438–1441.Google Scholar
Bettencourt, Luís M. A., Lobo, José, Helbing, Dirk, Kühnert, Christian, and West, Geoffrey B. 2007 Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:7301–7306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bocinsky, R. Kyle, Rush, Johnathan, Kintigh, Keith W., and Kohler, Timothy A. 2016 Exploration and Exploitation in the Macrohistory of the Pre-Hispanic Pueblo Southwest. Science Advances 2:e1501532.Google Scholar
Brown, Clifford T., Watson, April A., Gravlin-Beman, Ashley, and Liebovitch, Larry S. 2012 Poor Mayapan. In The Ancient Maya of Mexico: Reinterpreting the Past of the Northern Maya Lowlands, edited by Braswell, Geoffrey E., pp. 306–324. Equinox Publishing, Bristol, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Cameron, Cathy 1997 The Chipped Stone of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. In Ceramics, Lithics, and Ornaments of Chaco Canyon, edited by Mathien, Frances Joan, pp. 531–658. Publications in Archaeology 18G. Chaco Canyon Studies, National Park Service, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Cameron, Cathy 2009 Chaco and After in the Northern San Juan. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik 2002 Endogenizing Geopolitical Boundaries with Agent-Based Modeling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99:7296–7303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cegielski, Wendy H., and Rogers, J. Daniel 2016 Rethinking the Role of Agent-Based Modeling in Archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 41:283–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaco Research Archive 2010 Outlier Database. Electronic document, http://www.chacoarchive.org/cra/outlier-database/, accessed June 22, 2016.Google Scholar
Clauset, Aaron, Shalizi, Cosma Rohilla, and Newman, Mark E. J. 2009 Power Law Distributions in Empirical Data. SIAM Review 51:661–703.Google Scholar
Coffey, Grant 2014 The Harlan Great Kiva Site: Civic Architecture and Community Persistence in the Goodman Point Area of Southwestern Colorado. Kiva 79:380–404.Google Scholar
Coffey, Grant 2016 Creating Symmetry: The Cultural Landscape in the Sand Canyon Locality, Southwestern Colorado. Kiva 82:1–21.Google Scholar
Coltrain, Joan Brenner, Janetski, Joel C., and Carlyle, Shawn W. 2006 The Stable and Radio-Isotope Chemistry of Eastern Basketmaker and Pueblo Groups in the Four Corners Region of the American Southwest: Implications for Anasazi Diets, Origins, and Abandonments in Southwestern Colorado. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by Staller, John E., Tykot, Robert H., and Benz, Bruce F., pp. 276–289. Elsevier, New York.Google Scholar
Cordell, Linda S., and Plog, Fred 1979 Escaping the Confines of Normative Thought: A Reevaluation of Puebloan Prehistory. American Antiquity 44:405–429.Google Scholar
Coward, Fiona, and Dunbar, Robin I. M. 2014 Communities on the Edge of Civilization. In Lucy to Language: The Benchmark Papers, edited by Dunbar, Robin I. M., Gamble, Clive, and Gowlett, John A. J., pp. 380–405. Oxford University Press, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubreuil, Benoît 2010 Human Evolution and the Origins of Hierarchies: The State of Nature. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Duffy, Paul R. 2015 Site Size Hierarchy in Middle-Range Societies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 37:85–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earle, Timothy 2001 Economic Support of Chaco Canyon Society. American Antiquity 66:26–35.Google Scholar
Feinman, Gary M., Lightfoot, Kent G., and Upham, Steadman 2000 Political Hierarchies and Organizational Strategies in the Puebloan Southwest. American Antiquity 65:449–470.Google Scholar
Fowles, Severin M. 2013 An Archaeology of Doings: Secularism and the Study of Pueblo Religion. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Gillespie, Colin S. 2015 Fitting Heavy Tailed Distributions: The poweRlaw Package. Journal of Statistical Software 64:1–16.Google Scholar
Glowacki, Donna M. 2015 Living and Leaving: A Social History of Regional Depopulation in Thirteenth-Century Mesa Verde. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Glowacki, Donna M., and Ortman, Scott G. 2012 Characterizing Community-Center (Village) Formation in the VEP Study Area, A.D. 600–1280. In Emergence and Collapse of Early Villages: Models of Central Mesa Verde Archaeology, edited by Kohler, Timothy A. and Varien, Mark D., pp. 219–246. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving 1959 The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Doubleday Anchor, Garden City, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Griffin, Arthur F., and Stanish, Charles 2007 An Agent-Based Model of Prehistoric Settlement Patterns and Political Consolidation in the Lake Titicaca Basin of Peru and Bolivia. Structure and Dynamics eJournal of Anthropological and Related Sciences 2 (2):1–49.Google Scholar
Grove, Matt 2011 An Archaeological Signature of Multi-level Social Systems: The Case of the Irish Bronze Age. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30:44–61.Google Scholar
Gruner, Erina 2015 Replicating Things, Replicating Identity: The Movement of Chacoan Ritual Paraphernalia beyond the Chaco World. In Practicing Materiality, edited by Van Dyke, Ruth M., pp. 56–78. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Haas, W. Cynthia, Randall Jr., Klink, J., Maggard, Greg J., and Aldenderfer, Mark S. 2015 Settlement-Size Scaling among Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems in the New World. PLoS One 10 (11):e0140127.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Marcus J., Milne, Bruce T., Walker, Robert S., Burger, Oskar, and Brown, James H. 2007 The Complex Structure of Hunter-Gatherer Social Networks. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274:2195–2202.Google Scholar
Harris, Rachel M. 2014 Comparative Analysis of Ceramics from Three Great Houses and One Small House Site in Southeastern Utah. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Heitman, Carrie C. 2015 The House of Our Ancestors: New Research on the Prehistory of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, A.D. 800–1200. In Chaco Revisited: New Research on the Prehistory of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, edited by Heitman, Carrie C. and Plog, Stephen, pp. 215–248. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Horton, Robert E. 1945 Erosional Development of Streams and their Drainage Basins: Hydro-physical Approach to Quantitative Morphology. Geological Society of America Bulletin 56:275–370.Google Scholar
Inomata, Takeshi, and Coben, Lawrence S. 2006 Archaeology of Performance: Theaters of Power, Community, and Politics. Alta Mira Press, New York.Google Scholar
Johnson, Allen W., and Earle, Timothy K. 2000 The Evolution of Human Societies: From Foraging Group to Agrarian State. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.Google Scholar
Johnson, Gregory A. 1982 Organizational Structure and Scalar Stress. In Theory and Explanation in Archaeology, edited by Renfrew, Colin, Rowlands, Mark J., and Segraves, Barbara A., pp. 389–421. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Johnson, Gregory A. 1989 Dynamics of Southwestern Prehistory: Far Outside—Looking In. In Dynamics of Southwest Prehistory, edited by Cordell, Linda S. and Gumerman, George J., pp. 371–389. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Judge, W. James 1989 Chaco Canyon—San Juan Basin. In Dynamics of Southwest Prehistory, edited by Cordell, Linda S. and Gumerman, George J., pp. 209–261. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Kantner, John 2003 Rethinking Chaco as a System. Kiva 69:207–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kantner, John, and Hobgood, Ronald 2003 Digital Technologies and Prehistoric Landscapes in the American Southwest. In The Reconstruction of Archaeological Landscapes through Digital Technologies, edited by Forte, Maurizio and Williams, Patrick Ryan, pp. 117–124. Archaeopress, Oxford, England.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A. 1993 News from the Northern American Southwest: Prehistory on the Edge of Chaos. Journal of Archaeological Research 1:267–321.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A. 2012 Modeling Agricultural Productivity and Farming Effort. In Emergence and Collapse of Early Villages: Models of Central Mesa Verde Archaeology, edited by Kohler, Timothy A. and Varien, Mark D., pp. 85–111. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., Cockburn, Denton, Hooper, Paul, Bocinsky, R. Kyle, and Kobti, Ziad 2012 The Coevolution of Group Size and Leadership: An Agent-Based Public Goods Model for Prehispanic Pueblo Societies. Advances in Complex Systems 15:29.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., Crabtree, Stefani A., Bocinsky, R. Kyle, and Hooper, Paul 2016 Developing General Methods for Explaining Sociopolitical Evolution in Prehispanic Pueblo Societies. In The Principles of Complexity, edited by Sabloff, Jeremy, Sabloff, Paula, Krakauer, David, Flack, Jessica, West, Geoffrey, Bettencourt, Luis, and Lobo, Jose. [In Review] Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. http://www.santafe.edu/media/workingpapers/15-04-011.pdf.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., and Higgins, Rebecca 2016 Quantifying Household Inequality in Early Pueblo Villages. Current Anthropology 57:690–697.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., Ortman, Scott G., Grundtisch, Katie E., Fitzpatrick, Carly M., and Cole, Sarah M. 2014 The Better Angels of Their Nature: Declining Violence Through Time Among Prehispanic Farmers of the Pueblo Southwest. American Antiquity 79:444–464.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., and Reese, Kelsey M. 2014 Long and Spatially Variable Neolithic Demographic Transition in the North American Southwest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111:10101–10106.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., and Varien, Mark D. 2010 A Scale Model of Seven Hundred Years of Farming Settlements in Southwestern Colorado. In Becoming Villagers: Comparing Early Village Societies, edited by Bandy, M. and Fox, J., pp. 37–61. Amerind Foundation and the University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., and Varien, Mark D. (editors) 2012 Emergence and Collapse of Early Villages: Models of Central Mesa Verde Archaeology. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Kosse, Krisztina 1994 The Evolution of Large, Complex Groups: A Hypothesis. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 13: 35–50.Google Scholar
Kosse, Krisztina 2000 Some Regularities in Human Group Formation and the Evolution of Societal Complexity. Complexity 6:60–64.Google Scholar
Lehman, Julia, Phyllis, Lee, and Dunbar, R. I. M. 2014 Unravelling the Function of Community-level Organization. In Lucy to Language: The Benchmark Papers, edited by Dunbar, Robin I. M., Gamble, Clive, and Gowlett, John A. J., pp. 245–276. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 1990 Cross-Cultural Perspectives on the Community. In On Vernacular Architecture: Paradigms and Environmental Response, edited by Turan, Mete, pp. 122–145. Avebury Publishing, Aldershot, England.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 2006 Chaco Matters: An Introduction. In The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon, an Eleventh-Century Pueblo Regional Center, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 3–44. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 2015 The Chaco Meridian: One Thousand Years of Political and Religious Power in the Ancient Southwest. 2nd ed. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. (editor) 2006 The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon, an Eleventh-Century Pueblo Regional Center. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H., Gillespie, William B., and Windes, Thomas C. 1984 Great Pueblo Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Publications in Archaeology, Chaco Canyon Studies, 18B. Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent G., and Feinman, Gary M. 1982 Social Differentiation and Leadership Development in Early Pithouse Villages in the Mogollon Region of the American Southwest. American Antiquity 47:64–86.Google Scholar
Lipe, William D. 2002 Social Power in the Central Mesa Verde Region, A.D. 1150–1290. In Seeking the Center Place: Archaeology and Ancient Communities in the Central Mesa Verde Region, edited by Varien, Mark D. and Wilshusen, Richard H., pp. 203–232. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lipe, William D. 2006 Notes from the North. In The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon: An Eleventh-Century Pueblo Regional Center, edited by Lekson, Stephen K., pp. 261–313. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Lyman, Lee R 2009 Prehistory of the Oregon Coast: The Effects of Excavation Strategies and Assemblage Size on Archaeological Inquiry. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
McGregor, John C. 1943 Burial of an Early American Magician. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 82 (2):270–298.Google Scholar
Mahoney, Nancy M., and Kantner, John 2000 Chacoan Archaeology and Great House Communities. Great House Communities across the Chacoan Landscape, edited by Kantner, John and Mahoney, Nancy M., pp. 1–18. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Mandelbrot, Benoit 1953 An Informational Theory of the Statistical Structure of Languages. In Communication Theory, edited by Jackson, Willis, pp. 485–502. Butterworth, Woburn, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Maran, Joseph 2009 The Crisis Years? Reflections on Signs of Instability in the Last Decades of the Mycenaean Palaces. Scienze dell'antichità: Storia archeologia antropologia 15:241–262.Google Scholar
Matson, R.G. 2016 The Nutritional Context of the Pueblo III Depopulation of the Northern San Juan: Too Much Maize? Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 5:622–631.Google Scholar
Mills, Barbara J. 2007 Performing the Feast: Visual Display and Suprahousehold Commensalism in the Puebloan Southwest. American Antiquity 72:210–239.Google Scholar
Mitzenmacher, Michael 2004 A Brief History of Generative Models for Power Law and Log-normal Distributions. Internet Mathematics 2:226–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, Earl H. 1924 Burials in the Aztec Ruin and the Aztec Ruin Annex. Anthropological Papers Vol. 26, Pt. 1 and 4. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Ortman, Scott G. 2016 Discourse and Human Securities in Tewa Origins. In Archaeology of the Human Experience, edited by Hegmon, Michelle, pp. 74–94. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, No. 27. Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Pepper, George H. 1909 The Exploration of a Burial-Room in Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico. In Putnam Anniversary Volume: Anthropological Essays Presented to Frederic Ward Putnam in Honor of His Seventieth Birthday, April 16, 1909, by His Friends and Associates, pp. 196–252. G. E. Stechert & Co., New York.Google Scholar
Plog, Stephen, and Heitman, Carrie 2010 Hierarchy and Social Inequality in the American Southwest, A.D. 800–1200. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107:19619–19626.Google Scholar
Powers, Robert P., Gillespie, William B., and Lekson, Stephen H. 1983 The Outlier Survey: A Regional View of Settlement in the San Juan Basin. Reports of the Chaco Center 3. National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Reese, Kelsey M. 2014 Over the Line: A Least-cost Analysis of “Community” in Mesa Verde National Park. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.Google Scholar
Reid, J. Jefferson, and Whittlesey, Stephanie M. 1990 The Complicated and the Complex: Observations on the Archaeological Record of Large Pueblos. In Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, edited by Minnis, Paul E. and Redman, Charles L., pp. 184–195. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Reynolds, A. C., Betancourt, Julio L., Quade, Jay, Patchett, P. Jonathan, Dean, Jeffrey S., and Stein, John 2005 87S/86Sr Sourcing of Ponderosa Pine Used in Anasazi Great House Construction at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science 32:1061–1075.Google Scholar
Ryan, Susan C. 2013 Architectural Communities of Practice: Ancestral Pueblo Kiva Production during the Chaco and Post-Chaco Periods in the Northern Southwest. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Ryan, Susan C. 2017 Integration and Disintegration: The Role of Kiva Production in Community Formation in the Prehispanic U.S. Southwest. In Coming Together: Comparative Approaches to Population Aggregation and Early Urbanization, edited by Gyucha, Atilla, in press. Institute for European and Mediterranean Archaeology, Buffalo, New York.Google Scholar
Schwindt, Dylan M., Bocinsky, R. Kyle, Ortman, Scott G., Glowacki, Donna M., Varien, Mark D., and Kohler, Timothy A. 2016 The Social Consequences of Climate Change in the Central Mesa Verde Region. American Antiquity 81:74–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, Herbert A. 1960 Some Further Notes on a Class of Skew Distribution Functions. Information and Control 3:80–88.Google Scholar
Steponaitis, Vincas P. 1981 Settlement Hierarchies and Political Complexity in Nonmarket Societies: The Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico. American Anthropologist 83:320–363.Google Scholar
Toll, H. Wolcott 1991 Material Distributions and Exchange in the Chaco System. In Chaco and Hohokam: Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest, edited by Crown, Patricia L. and Judge, W. James, pp. 77–108. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe. Google Scholar
Turchin, Peter, and Gavrilets, Sergey 2009 The Evolution of Complex Hierarchical Societies. Social Evolution & History 8:167–198.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Ruth M. 2007a Great Kivas in Time, Space, and Society. In The Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 93–126. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Ruth M. 2007b The Chaco Experience: Landscape and Ideology at the Center Place. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Ruth M., Bocinsky, R. Kyle, Robinson, Tucker J., and Windes, Thomas C. 2016 Great Houses, Shrines, and High Places: Intervisibility in the Chacoan World. American Antiquity 81:205–230.Google Scholar
Varien, Mark D., Ortman, Scott G., Kohler, Timothy A., Glowacki, Donna M., and Johnson, C. David 2007 Historical Ecology in the Mesa Verde Region: Results from the Village Project. American Antiquity 72:273–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vivian, Gordon, and Reiter, Paul 1965 The Great Kivas of Chaco Canyon and Their Relationships. School of American Research, Monograph No. 22. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Ware, John 2014 A Pueblo Social History: Kinship, Sodality, and Community in the Northern Southwest. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Tony J., Christiansen, John H., Magnus Widell, Jason Ur, and Altweel, Mark 2007 Urbanization within a Dynamic Environment: Modeling Bronze Age Communities in Upper Mesopotamia. American Anthropologist 109:52–68.Google Scholar
Windes, Thomas C. 1987 Investigations at the Pueblo Alto Complex, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, 1975–1979. Vol II, Part 2. Publications in Archeology 18F, Chaco Canyon Studies. National Park Service, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Windes, Thomas C. 2015 The Chacoan Court Kiva. Kiva 79:337–379.Google Scholar
Windes, Thomas C., and Bacha, Eileen. 2008 Sighting along the Grain: Differential Structural Wood Use at the Salmon Ruin. In Chaco's Northern Prodigies: Salmon, Aztec, and the Ascendancy of the Middle San Juan Region After A.D. 1100, edited by Reed, Paul F., pp. 113–39. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Zhou, W.-X., Sornette, Didier, Hill, Russell A., and Dunbar, Robin I. M. 2005 Discrete Hierarchical Organisation of Social Group Sizes. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, 272B:439–444.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 1

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 144.2 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 2

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 165.3 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 3

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 1.2 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 4

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 1.6 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 5

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 3.4 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 6

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 1.9 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 7

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 2.9 MB
Supplementary material: PDF

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 8

Download Crabtree supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 88.8 MB
Supplementary material: File

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 9

Download Crabtree supplementary material(File)
File 75.9 KB
Supplementary material: File

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 10

Download Crabtree supplementary material(File)
File 117.8 KB
Supplementary material: File

Crabtree supplementary material

Crabtree supplementary material 11

Download Crabtree supplementary material(File)
File 147.3 KB