Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-kw2vx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-12T01:51:33.019Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Fertility and the Development of Agriculture in the Prehistoric Midwest

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Jane E. Buikstra ,
Lyle W. Konigsberg  and
Jill Bullington
Jane E. Buikstra
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637;
Lyle W. Konigsberg
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60201
Jill Bullington
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60201
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article we develop and apply a method for estimating fertility in paleodemographic study. The proportion D30+/D5+, generated from standard life table calculations, is used to estimate relative fertility rates for eight Woodland and Mississippian populations represented by skeletal series from west-central Illinois. The inferred pattern of fertility increase through time is then considered in the context of key variables that define diet, technology, and sedentism. We conclude that changes in diet or food preparation techniques are implicated in this demographic change. The absence of a significant increment in juvenile mortality in association with the elevated fertility rates suggests that these changes in fertility explain the regional population increase previously inferred from mortuary and habitation site densities.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 51 , Issue 3 , July 1986 , pp. 528 - 546
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Acsadi, G., and Nemeskeri, J. 1970 History of Human Life Span and Mortality. Akademiai Kaido, Budapest.Google Scholar
Angel, J. L. 1969 The Bases of Paleodemography. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 30: 427–437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angel, J. L. 1971 Early Neolithic Skeletons from Catal Hiiyak: Demography and Pathology. A natolian Studies 21: 77–98.Google Scholar
Asch, D. L. 1976 The Middle Woodland Population of the Lower Illinois Valley: A Study in Paleodemographic Methods. Northwestern University Archaeological Program, Scientific Papers, No. 1.Google Scholar
Asch, D. L., and Asch, N. B. 1977 Chenopod as Cultigen: A Re-Evaluation of Some Prehistoric Collections from Eastern North America. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 2: 3–45.Google Scholar
Asch, D. L., and Asch, N. B. 1978 The Economic Potential of Iva annua and Its Prehistoric Importance in the Lower Illinois Valley. In The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany, edited by Ford, R. I., pp. 300–341. University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, No. 67. Google Scholar
Asch, D. L., and Asch, N. B. 1982 A Chronology for the Development of Prehistoric Horticulture in Westcentral Illinois. Paper presented at the 47th annual meetings of the Society for American Archaeology, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Asch, D. L., Farasworth, K. B., and Asch, N. B. 1979 Woodland Subsistence and Settlement in West Central Illinois. In Hopewell Archaeology, edited by Brose, D. and Greber, N., pp. 80–85. Midcontinental Journal Special Paper No. 3, Kent State University Press.Google Scholar
Billewicz, W. Z., Fellows, J. M., and Hytten, C. A. 1976 Comments on the Critical Metabolic Mass and the Age at Menarche. Annals of Human Biology 3: 51–59. Binford, pp. 313–341. Aldine, Chicago.Google Scholar
Billewicz, W. Z., Fellows, J. M., and Hytten, C. A. 1980 Willow Smoke and Dogs’ Tails: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity 45: 4–28.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R., and Chasko, W. J. Jr., 1976 Nunamiut Demographic History: A Provocative Case. In Demographic Anthropology: Quantitative Approaches, edited by W, E. B. Zubrow, pp. 63–143. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Birdsell, J. B. 1968 Some Predictions for the Pleistocene Based on Equilibrium Systems Among Recent Hunter-Gatherers. In Man the Hunter, edited by Lee, R. B. and DeVore, I., pp. 229–240. Aldine, Chicago.Google Scholar
Blacker, C. P. 1947 Stages of Population Growth. Eugenics Review 39: 88–102.Google Scholar
Bocquet, J. P. 1979 Une Approche de la Fecondite des Populations inhumees. Bulletins et Memoires de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris 6: 261–268.Google Scholar
Bocquet-Appel, J., P., and Masset, C. 1982 Farewell to Paleodemography. Journal of Human Evolution 11: 321–333.Google Scholar
Bongaarts, J. 1980 Does Malnutrition Affect Fecundity? A Summary of Evidence. Science 208: 564–569.Google Scholar
Bongaarts, J., and Delgado, H. 1979 Effects of Nutritional Status on Fertility in Rural Guatemala. In Natural Fertility, edited by Leridon, H. and Menken, J., pp. 107–133. Ordina, Liege.Google Scholar
Boserup, E. 1965 The Conditions of Agricultural Growth. Aldine, Chicago.Google Scholar
Braun, D. P. 1983 Pots as Tools. In Archaeological Hammers and Theories, edited by Moore, J. A. and Keene, A. S., pp. 107–134. Academic Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, J. A., and Vierra, R. K. 1983 What Happened in the Middle Archaic? Introduction to an Ecological Approach to Koster Site Archaeology. In Archaic Hunters and Gatherers in the American Midwest, edited by Phillips, J. L. and Brown, J. A., pp. 165–195. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1972 Hopewell in the Lower Illinois River Valley: A Regional Approach to the Study of Biological Variability and Mortuary Activity. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1975 Cultural and Biological Variability: A Comparison of Models. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Denver.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1976 Hopewell in the Lower Illinois River Valley: A Regional Approach to the Study of Biological Variability and Mortuary Activity. Northwestern University Archeological Program, Research Series, Monograph No. 2.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1977 Biocultural Dimensions of Archeological Study: A Regional Perspective. In Biocultural Adaptation in Prehistoric America, edited by Blakely, R. L., pp. 67–84. Southern Anthropological Society Proceedings No. 11. Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1980 Epigenetic Distance: A Study of Biological Variability in the Lower Illinois River Region. In Early Native Americans, edited by Browman, D. C., pp. 271–299. Mouton Press, The Hague.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1981 The Koster Site: Mortuary Practices, Paleodemography, and Paleopathology: A Case Study from Illinois. In The Archaeology of Death, edited by Chapman, R., Kinnes, I, and Randsborg, K., pp. 123–132. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1984 The Lower Illinois River Region: A Prehistoric Context for the Study of Ancient Health and Diet. In Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, edited by Cohen, M. N. and Armelagos, G., chapter 9. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., and Cook, D. C. 1981 Pre-Columbian Tuberculosis in West-Central Illinois: Prehistoric Disease in Biocultural Perspective. In Prehistoric Tuberculosis in the Americas, edited by Buikstra, J. E., pp. 115–139. Northwestern University Archeological Program, Scientific Papers No. 5. Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., and Konigsberg, L. W. 1985 Paleodemography: Critiques and Controversies. American Anthropologist. 87: 316–333.Google Scholar
Carael, M. 1978 Relations Between Birth Intervals and Nutrition in Three Central African Populations (Zaire). In Nutrition and Human Reproduction, edited by Mosley, W. H., pp. 365–384. Plenum Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carneiro, R. L. 1967 On the Relationship Between Size of Population and Complexity of Social Organization. Southwestern Journal of Anthropologyly. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charles, D. K., and Buikstra, J. E. 1983 Archaic Mortuary Sites in the Central Mississippi Drainage: Distribution, Structure, and Behavioral Implications. In Archaic Hunters and Gatherers in the American Midwest, edited by Phillips, J. L. and Brown, J. A., pp. 117–145. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Charles, D. K., Buikstra, J. E., and Konigsberg, L. 1986 Early Woodland Mortuary Practices in the Lower Illinois River Valley: The Behavioral Implications. In Early Woodland Archaeology in the Midwest, edited by Farnsworth, K. and Emerson, T.. Center for American Archeology Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Chen, L. C, Ahmed, S., Getsche, M., and Mosley, W. H. 1974 A Prospective Study of Birth Interval Dynamics in Rural Bangladesh. Population Studies 28: 277–297.Google Scholar
Chowdhury, A. K. M. A. 1978 Effect of Maternal Nutrition on Fertility in Rural Bangladesh. In Nutrition and Human Reproduction, edited by Mosley, W. H., pp. 401–410. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Christenson, A. L. 1980 Changes in the Human Niche in Response to Population Growth. In Modeling Change in Prehistoric Subsistence Economies, edited by Earle, T. and Christenson, A. L., pp. 31–72. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Coale, A., and Demeny, P. 1966 Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Coale, A., and Demeny, P. 1983 Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations. 2nd ed. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. N. 1977 The Food Crisis in Prehistory. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. N. 1980 Speculations on the Evolution of Density Measurement and Population Regulation in Homo sapiens. In Biosocial Mechanisms of Population Regulation, edited by Cohen, M. N., Malpass, R. S., and Klein, H. C., pp. 275–303. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. N. 1981a Pacific Coast Foragers: Affluent or Overcrowded. In Affluent Foragers, edited by Koyama, S. and Thomas, D. H.. Senri Ethnological Studies 9: 275–295.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. N. 1981b Population Growth, Social Conflict and Organizational Response in Human History. Paper presented to the United Nations Fund for Population Activities Conference. Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. N., and Armelagos, G. J. (editors) 1984 Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Conner, M. 1984 Population Structure and Biological Variation in the Late Woodland of Westcentral Illinois. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Cook, D. C. 1976 Pathologic States and Disease Process in Illinois Woodland Populations: An Epidemiologic Approach. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Cook, D. C. 1979 Subsistence Base and Health in Prehistoric Illinois Valley: Evidence from the Human Skeleton. Medical Anthropology 3: 109–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, D. C. 1981 Mortality, Age-Structure and Status in the Interpretation of Stress Indicators in Prehistoric Skeletons: A Dental Example from the Lower Illinois Valley. In The Archaeology of Death, edited by Chapman, R., Kinnes, I, and Randsborg, K., pp. 133–144. Cambridge University Press, London and New York.Google Scholar
Cook, D. C, and Buikstra, J. E. 1979 Health and Differential Survival in Prehistoric Populations: Prenatal Dental Defects. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51: 649–664.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowgill, G. L. 1975 Population Pressure as a Non-explanation. In Population Studies in Archaeology and Biological Anthropology, edited by Swedlund, A. C.. American Antiquity 40: 127–131, Memoir 30.Google Scholar
Davis, K. 1945 The World Demographic Transition. In Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 237: 1–11.Google Scholar
Davis, K. 1949 Human Society. Macmillan, New York.Google Scholar
DeRousseau, C. J. 1973 Mortuary Site Survey and Paleodemography in the Lower Illinois Valley. Paper presented at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association.Google Scholar
Droessler, J. 1981 Craniometry and Biological Distance: Biocultural Continuity and Change at the Late Woodland-Mississippian Interface. Center for American Archeology at Northwestern University, Research Series, No. 1.Google Scholar
Dumond, D. E. 1975 The Limitation of Human Population: A Natural History. Science 187: 713–721.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T. 1981 Threshold Hypotheses, Developmental Age, and Menstrual Function. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 54: 337–340.Google Scholar
Ellison, P. T. 1982 Skeletal Growth, Fatness, and Menarcheal Age: A Comparison of Two Hypotheses. Human Biology 54: 269–281.Google Scholar
Ember, C. R. 1983 The Relative Decline in Women's Contribution to Agriculture with Intensification. American Anthropologist 85: 285–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esche, H., and Lee, R. 1975 Is Maximum Optimum in Human Physiology? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Frisch, R. E. 1974 Critical Weight at Menarche, Initiation of the Adolescent Growth Spurt, and Control of Puberty. In Control of the Onset of Puberty, edited by Grumbach, M. M., Grave, G. D., and Mayer, F. E., pp. 403–423. John Wiley & Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Frisch, R. E. 1975 Demographic Implications of the Biological Determinants of Female Fecundity. Social Biology 22: 17–22.Google Scholar
Frisch, R. E., and McArthur, J. W. 1974 Menstrual Cycles: Fatness as a Determinant of Minimum Weight for Height Necessary for Their Maintenance or Onset. Science 185: 949–951.Google Scholar
Gabriel, K. R. 1978 A Simple Method of Multiple Comparisons of Means. Journal of the American Statistical Association 73: 724–729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, B. M., and McKern, T. W. 1973 A Method for Aging the Female Os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 38: 31–38.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L. G. 1980 Mississippian Mortuary Practices: A Case Study of Two Cemeteries in the Lower Illinois Valley. Northwestern University Archeological Program Scientific Papers, No. 5.Google Scholar
Gordon, C. C, and Buikstra, J. E. 1981 Soil pH, Bone Preservation, and Sampling Bias at Mortuary Sites. American Antiquity 46: 566–571.Google Scholar
Handwerker, W. P. 1983 The First Demographic Transition: An Analysis of Subsistence Choices and Reproductive Consequences. American Anthropologist 85: 5–27.Google Scholar
Harpending, H., and Wandsnider, L. 1982 Population Structures of Ghanzi and Ngamiland !Kung. In Current Developments in Anthropological Genetics, Ecology and Population Structure, vol. 2, edited by Crawford, M. H. and Mielke, J. H., pp. 29–50. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Harris, D. R. 1977a Settling Down: An Evolutionary Model for the Transformation of Mobile Bands into Sedentary Communities. In The Evolution of Social Systems, edited by Friedman, J. and Rowlands, M. J., pp. 401–417. Duckworth, London.Google Scholar
Harris, D. R. 1977b Alternative Pathways Toward Agriculture. In Origins of Agriculture, edited by A. Reed, Charles, pp. 179–243. Mouton Press, The Hague.Google Scholar
Hassan, F. A. 1973 On Mechanisms of Population Growth During the Neolithic. Current Anthropology 14: 535–540.Google Scholar
Hassan, F. A. 1974 Population Growth and Cultural Evolution. Reviews in Anthropology 1: 205–212.Google Scholar
Hassan, F. A. 1975 Determinants of the Size, Density, and Growth Rates of Hunting-Gathering Populations. In Human Ecology and Evolution, edited by Polgar, S., pp. 27–52. Mouton Press, The Hague.Google Scholar
Hassan, F. A. 1978 Demographic Archaeology. In Advance in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 1, edited by Schiffer, M., pp. 49–103. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Hassan, F. A. 1979 Demography and Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 8: 137–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hassan, F. A. 1980 The Growth and Regulation of Human Populations. In Biosocial Mechanisms of Population Regulation, edited by Cohen, M. N., Malpass, R. S., and Klein, H. G., pp. 305–319. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Hassan, F. A. 1981 Demographic Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Henry, L. 1961 Some Data on Natural Fertility. Eugenics Quarterly 8: 81–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, C. 1978 A Re-examination of Parturition Scars on the Human Female Pelvis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 49: 91–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howell, N. 1976 Toward a Uniformitarian Theory of Human Paleodemography. In The Demographic Evolution of Human Populations, edited by Ward, R. H. and Weiss, K. M., pp. 25–40. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Howell, N. 1979 Demography of the Dobe IKung. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Huffman, S. L., Chowdhury, A. K. M. A., Chakraborty, J., and Mosley, W. H. 1978a Nutrition and Post-Partum Amenorrhea in Rural Bangladesh. Population Studies 32: 251–260.Google Scholar
Huffman, S. L., Chowdhury, A. K. M. A., and Mosley, W. H. 1978b Postpartum Amenorrhea: How Is It Affected by Maternal Nutritional Status? Science 200: 1155–1157.Google Scholar
Huffman, S. L., Chowdhury, A. K. M. A., and Sykes, Z. M. 1980 Lactation and Fertility in Rural Bangladesh. Population Studies 34: 337–347.Google Scholar
Huss-Ashmore, R. 1980 Fat and Fertility: Demographic Implications of Differential Fat Storage. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 23: 65–91.Google Scholar
Johnston, F. E. 1974 Control of Age at Menarche. Human Biology 46: 159–171.Google Scholar
Johnston, F. E., Roche, A. F., Schell, L. M., and Wettenhall, H. N. B. 1975 Critical Weight at Menarche: Critique of a Hypothesis. American Journal of Diseases of Children 129: 19–23.Google Scholar
Knodel, J. 1977 Breast-Feeding and Population Growth. Science 198: 1111–1115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolata, G. B. 1974 Kung Hunter-Gatherers: Feminism, Diet and Birth Control. Science 185: 932–934.Google Scholar
Konner, M., and Worthman, C. 1980 Nursing Frequency, Gonadal Function, and Birth Spacing among IKung Hunter-Gatherers. Science 207: 788–791.Google Scholar
Lallo, J. 1973 The Skeletal Biology of Three Prehistoric American Indian Societies from Dickson Mounds. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.Google Scholar
Lambert, J. B., Szpunar, C. B., and Buikstra, J. E. 1977 Chemical Analysis of Excavated Human Bone from Middle and Late Woodland Sites. Archaeometry 21: 115–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, R. B. 1972 Population Growth and the Beginnings of Sedentary Life among the !Kung Bushmen. In Population Growth: Anthropological Implications, edited by Spooner, B., pp. 327–350. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.Google Scholar
Lee, R. B. 1979 The IKung San. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.Google Scholar
Lee, R. B., and DeVore, I. (editors) 1968 Man the Hunter. Aldine, Chicago.Google Scholar
Lee, R. B., and DeVore, I. (editors) 1976 Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.Google Scholar
Leridon, H. 1977 Human Fertility: The Basic Components. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Limp, W. F. 1980 Rational Location Choices and Prehistoric Settlement Analysis. Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University.Google Scholar
Menken, J., and Bongaarts, J. 1978 Reproductive Models in the Study of Nutrition-Fertility Interrelationships. In Nutrition and Human Reproduction, edited by Mosley, W. H., pp. 261–311. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Menken, J., Trussell, J., and Watkins, S. 1981 The Nutrition Fertility Link: An Evaluation of the Evidence. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 11: 425–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, R. G. Jr., 1981 Simultaneous Statistical Inference. Springer-Verlag, New York.Google Scholar
Moore, J. A., Swedlund, A. C., and Armelagos, G. J. 1975 The Use of Life Tables in Paleodemography. In Population Studies in Archaeology and Biological Anthropology: A Symposium, edited by Swedlund, A. C.. American Antiquity 40: 57–70.Google Scholar
Nardi, B. A. 1981 Modes of Explanation in Anthropological Population Theory: Biological Determinism vs. Self-Regulation in Studies of Population Growth in Third World Countries. American Anthropologist 83: 28–56.Google Scholar
Notestein, F. 1945 Population, The Long View. In Food for the World, edited by Schultz, T. W., pp. 36–57. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Patterson, T. C. 1971 The Emergence of Food Production in Central Peru. In Prehistoric Agriculture, edited by Struever, S., pp. 181–207. Natural History Press, Garden City, N. Y. Google Scholar
Perez, A., Vela, P., Potter, R., and Masnick, G. S. 1971 Timing and Sequence of Resuming Ovulation and Menstruation after Childbirth. Population Studies 25: 491–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perino, G. 1968 The Pete Klunk Mound Group, Calhoun County, Il Unois. In Hopewell and Woodland Site Archaeology in Illinois, Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin No. 6, pp. 9–124.Google Scholar
Perino, G. 1971 The Mississippian Component at the Schild Site (No. 4), Greene County, Illinois. In Mississippian Site Archaeology in Illinois, Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin No. 8, pp. 1–148.Google Scholar
Perino, G. 1973a The Late Woodland Component at the Schild Sites, Greene County, Illinois. In Late Woodland Site Archaeology in Illinois, Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin No. 9, pp. 90–140.Google Scholar
Perino, G. 1973b The Koster Mounds, Greene County, Illinois. In Late Woodland Site Archaeology in Illinois, Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin No. 9, pp. 141–210.Google Scholar
Perino, G. n. d. a The Gay Mounds, Pike County, Illinois. Unpublished ms.Google Scholar
Perino, G. n. d. b The Homer Adams Mounds, Pike County, Illinois. Unpublished ms.Google Scholar
Pickering, R. B. 1984 An Examination of Patterns of Arthritis in Middle Woodland, Late Woodland, and Mississippian Skeletal Series from the Lower Illinois Valley. Ph. D. dissertation, Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Pickering, R. B. n. d. The Ledders Site Report. Unpublished ms.Google Scholar
Potter, R. G., New, M. L., Wyon, J. B., and Gordon, J. E. 1965 Applications of Field Studies to Research on the Physiology of Human Reproduction: Lactation and Its Effects upon Birth Intervals in Eleven Punjab Villages, India. In Public Health and Population Change, edited by Sheps, M. C. and Ridley, J. C., pp. 377–399. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Reidhead, V. A. 1980 The Economics of Subsistence Change: Test of an Optimization Model. In Modeling Change in Prehistoric Subsistence Economies, edited by Earle, T. and Christenson, A. L., pp. 141–186. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Rohlf, F. J., and Sokal, R. R. 1981 Statistical Tables. 2nd ed. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Ryan, T. A. 1960 Significance Tests for Multiple Comparison of Proportions, Variances, and Other Statistics. Psychological Bulletin 57: 318–328.Google Scholar
Salber, E. J., Feinleib, M., and Mahon, B. Mac 1966 The Duration of Postpartum Amenorrhea. American Journal of Epidemiology 82: 347–358.Google Scholar
Salzano, F. M. 1974 Comments on History of Human Life Span and Mortality by Acsadi, G. and Nemeskeri, J.. Current Anthropology 15: 500.Google Scholar
Sattenspiel, L., and Harpending, H. 1983 Stable Populations and Skeletal Age. American Antiquity 48: 489–498.Google Scholar
Sengel, R. A. 1973 On Mechanisms of Population Growth During the Neolithic. Current Anthropology 14: 540–542.Google Scholar
Smith, P. E. L., and Young, T. C. Jr., 1972 The Evolution of Early Agriculture and Culture in Greater Mesopotamia: A Trial Model. In Population Growth: Anthropological Implications, edited by Spooner, B., pp. 1–59. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Sokal, R. R., and Rohlf, F. J. 1981 Biometry. 2nd ed. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Stephens, C. D. 1975 On Mechanisms of Population Growth. Current Anthropology 16: 228–229.Google Scholar
Stewart, T. D. 1970 Identification of the Scars of Parturition in the Skeletal Remains of Females. In Personal Identification in Mass Disasters, edited by Stewart, T. D., pp. 127–133. National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Stoline, M. R. 1981 The Status of Multiple Comparisons: Simultaneous Estimation of all Pairwise Comparisons in Oneway ANOVA Designs. American Statistician 35: 134–141.Google Scholar
Struever, S. 1965 The Hopewell Interaction Sphere in Riverine-Western Great Lakes Culture History. In Hopewellian Studies, edited by Caldwell, J. R. and Hall, R. L., pp. 85–106. Illinois State Museum Scientific Papers, vol. 12. Google Scholar
Struever, S. 1968 Woodland Subsistence-Settlement Systems in the Lower Illinois Valley. In New Perspectives in Archeology, edited by Binford, L. R. and Binford, S. R., pp. 285–312. Aldine, Chicago.Google Scholar
Styles, B. W. 1981 Faunal Exploitation and Resource Selection: Early Late Woodland Subsistence in the Lower Illinois Valley. Northwestern University Archeological Program, Scientific Papers, No. 3.Google Scholar
Suchey, J. M. 1979 Problems in the Aging of Females Using the Os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51: 467–470.Google Scholar
Sussman, R. W. 1972 Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic. Current Anthropology 13: 258–259.Google Scholar
Tainter, J. A. 1975a The Archaeological Study of Social Change: Woodland Systems in West-Central Illinois. Ph. D. dissertation, Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Tainter, J. A. 1975b Social Inference and Mortuary Practices: An Experiment in Numerical Classification. World Archaeology 7: 1–15.Google Scholar
Tainter, J. A. 1977a Woodland Social Change in West-Central Illinois. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 2: 67–98.Google Scholar
Tainter, J. A. 1977b Modeling Change in Prehistoric Social Systems. In For Theory Building in Archaeology, edited by Binford, L. R., pp. 327–351. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Tainter, J. A. 1978 Mortuary Practices and the Study of Prehistoric Social Systems. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 1, edited by Schiffer, M. B., pp. 105–141. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Tainter, J. A. 1980 Behavior and Status in a Middle Woodland Mortuary Population from the Illinois Valley. American Antiquity 45: 308–313.Google Scholar
Trussell, J. 1980 Statistical Flaws in Evidence for the Frisch Hypothesis that Fatness Triggers Menarche. Human Biology 52: 711–720.Google ScholarPubMed
Van der Merwe, N. J., and Vogel, J. C. 1978 “C Content of Human Collagen as a Measure of Prehistoric Diet in Woodland North America. Nature 276: 815–816.Google Scholar
Wills, V. G., and Waterlow, J. C. 1958 The Death Rate in Age Group 1-4 Years as an Index of Malnutrition. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 3: 167–170.Google Scholar
Winter, J. C. 1976 The Process of Farming Diffusion in the Southwest and Great Basin. American Antiquity 41: 421–429.Google Scholar