Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T19:26:11.785Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Computational Modeling and Neolithic Socioecological Dynamics: A Case Study from Southwest Asia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

C. Michael Barton ,
Isaac Ullah  and
Helena Mitasova
C. Michael Barton
Affiliation:
School of Human Evolution & Social Change, Center for Social Dynamics and Complexity, PO Box 872402, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402 ([email protected])
Isaac Ullah
Affiliation:
School of Human Evolution & Social Change, PO Box 872402, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402 ([email protected])
Helena Mitasova
Affiliation:
Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, U.S.A. ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Archaeology has an opportunity to offer major contributions to our understanding of the long-term interactions of humans and the environment. To do so, we must elucidate dynamic socioecological processes that generally operate at regional scales. However, the archaeological record is sparse, discontinuous, and static. Recent advances in computational modeling provide the potential for creating experimental laboratories where dynamic processes can be simulated and their results compared against the archaeological record. Coupling computational modeling with the empirical record in this way can increase the rigor of our explanations while making more transparent the concepts on which they are based. We offer an example of such an experimental laboratory to study the long-term effects of varying landuse practices by subsistence farmers on landscapes, and compare the results with the Levantine Neolithic archaeological record. Different combinations of intensive and shifting cultivation, ovicaprid grazing, and settlement size are modeled for the Wadi Ziqlab drainage of northern Jordan. The results offer insight into conditions under which previously successful (and sustainable) landuse practices can pass an imperceptible threshold and lead to undesirable landscape consequences. This may also help explain long-term social, economic, and settlement changes in the Neolithic of Southwest Asia.

Resumen

Resumen

La arqueología tiene la oportunidad de contribuir en gran parte al conocimiento de las interacciones entre la humanidad y el medio ambiente sobre tiempos largos. Para realizarlo, hay que concretar los procesos dinámicos de la socioecologia que tienen lugar a escala regional. Sin embargo, el registro arqueológico es disperso, discontinuo, y estático. Los recientes avances en el modelado de cómputo ofrecen el potencial de construir laboratorios de experimentación donde se puede simular procesos dinámicos y contrastar los resultados comparados con el registro arqueológico. La combinación de la modelización y el registro empírico puede incrementar el rigor de las explicaciones arqueológicas e igualmente hacer mas transparentes las ideas en que se basan. Presentamos aquí un ejemplo de tal laboratorio para el estudio de los efectos a largo plazo del uso de la tierra por campesinos sobre los paisajes, y comparar los resultados con el registro arqueológico del Neolítico Levantino. Combinaciones diferentes de cultivo intensivo y extensivo, del pastoreo de ovicápridos, y de asentamientos de varios tamaños se simulan para la cuenca del Wadi Ziqlab en el Norte de Jordania. Los resultados de tales experimentos proporcionan una nueva perspectiva sobre las condiciones en las que formas originalmente prósperas de agricultura pueden pasar un umbral imperceptible y tener consecuencias indeseables. También pueden contribuir a entender los cambios sociales, económicos, y de pautas de asentamiento en el curso del Neolítico en el Próximo Oriente.

Type
Forum
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 75 , Issue 2 , April 2010 , pp. 364 - 386
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Allan, W., Ucko, P. J., Tringham, R. and Dimbleby, G. W. 1972 Ecology, Techniques and Settlement Patterns. In Man, Settlement and Urbanism, pp. 211–226. Duckworth, London.Google Scholar
American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2003 Honoring the Universal Soil Loss Equation: Historic Landmark Dedication Pamphlet. Purdue University Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering.Google Scholar
Axtell, R. L., Epstein, J. M., Dean, J. S., Gumerman, G. J., Swedlund, A. C., Harburger, J., Chakravarty, S., Hammond, R., Parker, J. and Parker, M. 2002 Population Growth and Collapse in a Multiagent Model of the Kayenta Anasazi in Long House Valley. PNAS 99(90003):7275–7279.Google Scholar
Bankes, S., Lempert, R., and Popper, S. 2002 Making Computational Social Science Effective: Epistemology, Methodology, and Technology. Social Science Computer Review 20(4):377–388.Google Scholar
Banning, E. B. 1995 Herders or Homesteaders? A Neolithic Farm in Wadi Ziqlab, Jordan. Biblical Archaeologist 58(1):2–13.Google Scholar
Banning, E. B. 1996 Flinty Furlongs: The Settlement History of Wadi Ziqlab, Jordan. Ms. on file in the Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Canada, Toronto.Google Scholar
Banning, E. B. 1998 The Neolithic Period: Triumphs of Architecture, Agriculture, and Art. Near Eastern Archaeology 61(4):188–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banning, E. B. 2003 Housing Neolithic Farmers. Near Eastern Archaeology 66(1–2):4–21.Google Scholar
Banning, E. B. 2007 Wadi Rabahand Related Assemblages in the Southern Levant: Interpreting The Radiocarbon Evidence. Paléorient 33(1):77–101 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barton, C. Michael, Bernabeu Auban, J., Garcia Puchol, O., Schmich, S., and Molina Balaguer, L. 2004 Long-Term Socioecology and Contingent Landscapes. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 11(3):253–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barton, C. Michael, Bezzi, A., Bezzi, L., Francisci, D., Gietl, R., and Neteler, M. 2007 GRASS, un potente GIS per archeologi. In Open Source, Free Software e Open Format nei processi di ricerca archeologici, Atti del I Workshop (Grosseto, 8 maggio 2006), edited by R. Bagnara and G. M. Jánica, pp. 97–103. Universit a degli Studi di Siena, Siena.Google Scholar
Bentley, R. A., and Maschner, Hergert D. G. (editors) 2003 Complex Systems and Archaeology: Empirical and Theoretical Applications. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Bevan, A. and Conolly, J. 2002 GIS, Archaeological Survey, and Landscape Archaeology on the Island of Kythera, Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology 29(1/2): 123–138.Google Scholar
Blench, R. 1998 Rangeland degradation and socio-economic changes among the Bedu of Jordan: results of the 1995 IFAD Survey. Paper presented at the Livestock: Coping with Drought, Electronic conference based at http://www.odi.org.uk/pdn/drought/index.html.Google Scholar
Boellstorff, D., and Benito, G. 2005 Impacts of Set-Aside Policy on the Risk of Soil Erosion in central Spain. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 107(2–3):231–243.Google Scholar
Bonet, A., and Pausas, J. G. 2004 Species Richness and Cover along a 60-Year Chronosequence in Old-Fields of Southeastern Spain. Plant Ecology 174:257–270.Google Scholar
Bonet, A., and Pausas, J. G. 2007 Old Field Dynamics on the Dry Side of the Mediterranean Basin: Patterns and Processes in semiarid SE Spain. In Old Fields: Dynamics and Restoration of Abandoned Farmland, edited by V. A. Cramer and R. J. Hobbs, pp. 247–264. Island Press.Google Scholar
Braidwood, L. S., University of Chicago. Oriental Institute, and Iraq-Jarmo Prehistoric Project (1950–1955) 1983 Prehistoric archeology along the Zagros Flanks. University of Chicago Oriental Institute publications, v. 105. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.Google Scholar
Bryson, R. A., and Bryson, R. U. 1999 Holocene Climates of Anatolia: As Simmulated with Archaeoclimatic Modeling. Türkyie Bilimer Akademisi Arkeoloji Dergisi 2:1–13.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1982 Archaeology ss Human Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1996 Ecology in the Long View: Settlement Histories, Agrosystemic Strategies, and Ecological Performance. Journal of Field Archaeology 23:141–150.Google Scholar
Christiansen, J. H., and Altaweel, M. 2006 Simulation of Natural and Social Process Interactions: An Example From Bronze Age Mesopotamia. Social Science Computer Review 24(2): 209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clevis, Q., Tucker, G. E., Lock, G., Lancaster, S. T., Gasparini, N., Desitter, A., and Bras, R. L. 2006 Geoarchaeological Simulation of Meandering River Deposits and Settlement Distributions: A Three-Dimensional Approach. Geoarchaeology 21(8):843–874.Google Scholar
Conolly, J., and Lake, M. W. 2006 Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Degani, A., Lewis, L. A., and Downing, B. B. 1979 Interactive Computer Simulation of the Spatial Process of Soil Erosion. Professional Geographer 31(2):184–190.Google Scholar
di Piazza, G. V., di Stefano, C., and Ferro, V. 2007 Modelling the Effects of a Bushfire on Erosion in a Mediterranean Basin. Hydrological Sciences Journal 52(6): 1253–1253.Google Scholar
Essa, S. 2004 GIS Modeling of Land Degradation in Northern-Jordan using Landsat imagery. Paper presented at the Proceedings of XXth ISPRS Congress, Istanbul.Google Scholar
Falconer, S. E., Mathers, C., and Stoddart, S. 1994 The Development and Decline of Bronze Age Civilisation in the Southern Levant: A Reassessment of Urbanism and Ruralism. In Development and Decline in the Mediterranean Bronze Age, pp. 305–33–305–33. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield.Google Scholar
Fisher, C. T. and Feinman, Gary M. 2005 Introduction to “Landscapes over Time”. American Anthropologist 107(1):62–69.Google Scholar
Fisher, C. T., and Thurston, T. L. 1999 Special section. Dynamic Landscapes and Sociopolitical Process: The Topography of Anthropogenic Environments in Global Perspective. Antiquity 73:630–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flannery, Kent. 1986 Guilá Naquitz: Archaic Foraging & Early Agriculture in Oaxaca. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Gaines, S. W., and Gaines, W. M. 2000 Impact of Small-Group Decision Making in Reducing Stress Conditions. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 19:103–130.Google Scholar
Hammad, A. A., Lundekvam, H., and Børresen, T. 2004 Adaptation of RUSLE in the Eastern Part of the Mediterranean Region. Environmental Management 34(6):829–841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J. B. 1998 Ecological Variability and Agricultural Specialization among the Protohistoric Pueblos of Central New Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 25:275–294.Google Scholar
Hunt, C. O., Elrishi, H. A., Gilbertson, D. D., Grattan, J., McLaren, S., Pyatt, F. B., Rushworth, G.. and Barker, G. W. 2004 Early-Holocene environments in the Wadi Faynan, Jordan. The Holocene 14(6):921–930.Google Scholar
Janssen, M. A., Kohler, Timothy A., and Scheffer, M. 2003 Sunk-Cost Effects and Vulnerability to Collapse in Ancient Societies. Current Anthropology 44(5):755–728.Google Scholar
Johnson, C. D., Kohler, Timothy A., and Cowan, J. 2005 Modeling Historical Ecology, Thinking about Contemporary Systems. American Anthropologist 107(1):96–107.Google Scholar
Kamp, Kathryn A. 1987 Affluence and Image: Ethnoarchaeology in a Syrian Village. Journal of Field Archaeology 14(3):283–296.Google Scholar
Katakura, M. 1977 Bedouin Village: A Study of a Saudi Arabian people in transition. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Khazanov, A. 1994 Nomads and the Outside World. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Khresat, S. A., Rawajfih, Z., and Mohammad, M. 1998 Land Degradation in North-Western Jordan: Causes And Processes. Journal of Arid Environments 39:623–629.Google Scholar
Kirch, P. V. 2005 Archaeology and Global Change: The Holocene Record. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30:409–40 Google Scholar
Kirkby, M. J. 1971 Hillslope Process-Response Models Based on the Continuity Equation. Inst. Br. Geogr. Spec. Publ 3:15–30–15–30.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., Gummerman, George J., and Reynolds, R. G. 2005 Simulating Ancient Societies. Scientific American 293(1):76–84.Google Scholar
Kohler-Rollefson, Use, and Rollefson, Gary O. 1990 The Impact of Neolithic Subsistence Strategies on the Environment: The Case of ‘Ain Ghazal, Jordan. In Man’s Role in the Shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape, edited by S. Bottema, G. Entjes-Nieborg and W. van Zeist, pp. 3–14. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.Google Scholar
Kramer, C. 1980 Estimating prehistoric populations: An ethnoarchae-ological approach. In L’Archeologie de L’Iraq du debut de l’epoque Neolithique a 333 avant notre ere, pp. 315–334. Colloque Internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Editions du Centre Nacional du Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Kramer, C. 1982 Villiage Ethnoarchaeology: Rural Iran in Archaeolical Perspective. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Kuijt, Ian, and Goring-Morris, Nigel 2002 Foraging, Farming, and Social Complexity in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the Southern Levant: A Review and Synthesis. Journal of World Prehistory 16(4):361–440.Google Scholar
Kvamme, Kenneth L. 1999 Recent Directions and Developments in Geographical Information Systems. Journal of Archaeological Research 7:1 53–201.Google Scholar
Legge, T., and Harris, D. 1996 The Beginnings of Caprine Domestication In Southwest Asia. In The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 238–262. UCL Press, London.Google Scholar
Martin, L. 1999 Mammal Remains from the Eastern Jordanian Neolithic, and the Nature of Caprine Herding in the Steppe. Paleorient 25(2):87–104.Google Scholar
Mayer, G. R., and Sarjoughian, H. 2007 Complexities of Simulating a Hybrid Agent-Landscape Model Using Multi-Formalism Composability. Paper presented at the Agent-Directed Simulation, Spring Simulation Multi-conference, Norfolk, Virginia.Google Scholar
Mayer, G. R., Sarjoughian, H. S., Allen, E. K., Falconer, S. E., and Michael Barton, C. 2006 Simulation Modeling for Human Community and Agricultural Landuse. In Agent-Directed Simulation, Proceedings of the Agent-Directed Simulation Multi-Conference, Huntsville, Alabama, pp. 65–72, Huntsville, AL.Google Scholar
Mcintosh, R. J. 2000 Social Memory in the Mande. In The Way the Wind Blows: Climate, History, and Human Action, edited by R. J. Mcintosh, J. A.Tainter, andS. K. Mcintosh, pp. 141–180. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.Google Scholar
Miller, A., Michael Barton, C., García Puchol, O., and Bernabeu Auban, J. M. 2010 Surviving the Holocene Crisis: Human Ecological Responses to the Onset of the Current Interglacial. Journal of Anthropological Research, in press.Google Scholar
Mitas, L,. and Mitasova, Helena 1998 Distributed Soil Erosion Simulation for Effective Erosion Prevention. Water Resources Research 34(3):505–516.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, Hofierka, J., Zlocha, M., and Iverson, L. R. 1996 Modelling Topographic Potential for Erosion and Deposition Using GIS. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 10(5):629–641.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, and Mitas, L. 1993 Interpolation by Regularized Spline with Tension. Mathematical Geology 25:641–669.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, and Mitas, L. 2001a Modeling Physical Systems. In Geographic Information Systems and Environmental Modeling, edited by B. O. Parks, M. Crane and K. C. Clarke, pp. 189–210. Prentice Hall, New York.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, and Mitas, L. 2001b Multiscale Soil Erosion Simulations for Land Use Management. In Landscape Erosion and Landscape Evolution Modeling, edited by R. Harmon and W. Doe, pp. 321–347. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, Mitas, L. and Brown, W. M. 2001 Multiscale Simulation of Land Use Impact on Soil Erosion and Deposition Patterns. In Sustaining the Global Farm. Selected Papers from the 10th International Soil Conservation Organization Meeting, May 1999, Purdue University, edited by D. E. Stott, R. H. Mohtar and G. C. Steinhardt, pp. 1163–1169. USDA-ARS National Soil Erosion Research Laboratory, Purdue.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, Mitas, L., Brown, W. M., and Johnston, D. 1996 Multidimensional Soil Erosion/Deposition Modeling Part III: Process Based Erosion Simulation. Geographic Modeling and Systems Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urban-Champaign.Google Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, and Neteler, M. 2004 GRASS as Open Source Free Software GIS: Accomplishments and Perspectives. Transactions in GIS 8(2): 145–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitasova, Helena, Thaxton, C., Hofierka, J., McLaughlin, R., Moore, A. and  , M. L. 2004 Path Sampling Method for Modeling Overland Water Flow, Sediment Transport and Short Term Terrain Evolution in Open Source GIS. In Proceedings of the XVth International Conference on Computational Methods in Water Resources (CMWR XV), edited by C. T. Miller, M. W. Farthing, V. G. Gray and G. F. Pinder, pp. 1479–1490. Elsevier, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.Google Scholar
Moore, I. D., and Burch, G. J. 1986 Physical Basis of the Length-Slope Factor in the Universal Soil Loss Equation. Soil Science Society of America Journal 50:1294 - 1298.Google Scholar
Neteler, M., and Mitasova, Helena 2008 Open Source GIS: a GRASS GIS Approach. 3rd ed. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Onori, E, De Bonis, P., and Grauso, S. 2006 Soil Erosion Prediction at the Basin Scale Using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in a Catchment of Sicily (Southern Italy). Environmental Geology 50(8): 1129–1140.Google Scholar
Osem, Y., Perevolotsky, A., and Kigel, J. 2002 Grazing Effect on Diversity of Annual Plant Communities in a Semi-Arid Rangeland: Interactions with Small-Scale Spatial and Temporal Variation in Primary Productivity. The Journal of Ecology 90(6):936–946.Google Scholar
Peeters, I., Rommens, T., Verstraeten, G., Govers, G., Van Rompaey, A., Poesen, J., and Van Oost, K. 2006 Reconstructing Ancient Topography through Erosion Modelling. Geomorphology 78(3–4):250–264.Google Scholar
Perevolotsky, A., and Seligman, N. a. G. 1998 Role of Grazing in Mediterranean Rangeland Ecosystems. BioScience 48(12):1007–1017.Google Scholar
Quintero, L. A., Wilke, P. J., Rollefson, G. O., Bienert, H.-D., Gebel, H. G., and Neef, R. 2004 Highland Towns and Desert Settlements: Origins of Nomadic Pastoralism in the Jordanian Neolithic. In Central Settlements in Neolithic Jordan, pp. 201–213. ex oriente, Berlin.Google Scholar
Rawls, W. J. 1983 Estimating Soil Bulk Denisty from Particle Size Analysis and Organic Matter Content. Soil Science 135(2): 123.Google Scholar
Redman, C. L. 1999 Human Impact on Ancient Environments. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Redman, C. L. 2004 The Archaeology of Global Change: The Impact of Humans on Their Environment. Smithsonian Books, Washington.Google Scholar
Renard, K. G., Foster, G. R., Weesies, G. A., McCool, D. K., and Yoder, D. C. 1997 Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A Guide to Conservation Planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). In Agriculture Handbook, pp. 1–251. vol. 703. US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Google Scholar
Renard, K. G., and Freimund, J. R. 1994 Using Monthly Precipitation Data to Estimate the R-factor in the Revised USLE. Journal of Hydrology 157(1–4):287–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rollefson, Gary O., and Use Kohler-Rollefson 1992 Early Neolithic Exploitation Patterns in the Levant: Cultural Impact on the Environment. Population and Environment 13:243–254.Google Scholar
Rosen, S. A. 2008 Desert Pastoral Nomadism in the Longue Durée: A Case Study from the Negev and the Southern Levantine deserts. In The Archaeology of Mobility: Old World and New World Nomadism, edited by H. Barnard and W Wendrich, pp. 115–140. Cotsen Institute Of Archaeology, University Of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Ruter, A., Arzt, J., Vavrus, S., Bryson, R. A., and Kutzbach, J. E. 2004 Climate and Environment of the Subtropical and Tropical Americas (NH) in the mid-Holocene: Comparison of Observations with Climate Model Simulations. Quaternary Science Reviews 23(5–6):663.Google Scholar
Schmidtchen, G., and Bork, H.-R. 2003 Changing Human Impact during the Period of Agriculture in Central Europe: The Case Study Biesdorfer Kehlen, Brandenburg, Germany. In Long Term Hillslope and Fluvial System Modelling, edited by Andreas Lang, Kirsten Hennrich, and Richard Dikau, pp. 183–200. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Simmons, A. H. 2007 The Neolithic Revolution in the Near East: Transforming the Human Landscape. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Singh, R., and Phadke, V. S. 2006 Assessing Soil Loss by Water Erosion in Jamni River Basin, Bundelkhand region, India, Adopting Universal Soil Loss Equation Using GIS. Current Science 90(10):1431–1435.Google Scholar
Stuth, J. W., and Kamau, P. N. 1989 Influence of Woody Plant Cover on Dietary Selection by Goats in an Acacia Senegal Savanna of East Aifrica. Small Ruminant Reaerch 3:211–225.Google Scholar
Twiss, K. C. 2007 The Neolithic of the Southern Levant. Evolutionary Anthropology 1:24–35.Google Scholar
Ullah, I. I. T. 2010 Goats and green pastures: the pastoral footprint of Late Neolithic Wadi Ziqlab. Unpublished Manuscript. Submitted to American Antiquity.Google Scholar
van der Leeuw, Sander 2000 Land Degradation as a Socionatural Process. In The Waythe Wind Blows: Climate, History, and Human Action, edited by J. A. Mcintosh, J. A. Tainter and S. K. Mcintosh, pp. 357–384. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.Google Scholar
van der Leeuw, Sander, and Redman, Charles L. 2002 Placing Archaeology at the Center of Socio-Natural Studies. American Antiquity 67(4):597–605.Google Scholar
van Vuuren, D. P., and Bouwman, L. F. 2005 Exploring Past and Future Changes in the Ecological Footprint for World Regions. Ecological Economics 52(1):43–62.Google Scholar
Warren, S. D., Mitasova, H., Hohmann, M. G., Landsberger, S., Iskander, F. Y., Ruzycki, T. S., and Senseman, G. M. 2005 Validation of a 3-D Enhancement of the Universal Soil Loss Equation for Prediction of Soil Erosion and Sediment Deposition. Catena 64:281–296.Google Scholar
Watson, Patty Jo 1979 Archaeological Ethnography in Western Iran. University of Arizona Press, Tucson Google Scholar
Westcott, K. L., and Brandon, R. J. (editors) 2000 Practical Applications of GIS for Archaeologist: A Predictive Modeling Kit. Taylor & Francis, New York.Google Scholar
Wheatley, David, and Gillings, Mark 2002 Spatial Technology and Archaeology: the Archaeological Applications of GIS. Taylor & Francis, New York.Google Scholar
Wischmeier, W. H. 1976 Use and Misuse of the Universal Soil Loss Equation. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 31:5–9.Google Scholar
Wischmeier, W. H., Johnson, C. B., and Cross, B. V. 1971 A Soil Erodibility Nomograph for Farmland and Construction Sites. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 26:189–92.Google Scholar
Wischmeier, W. H., and Smith, D. D. 1978 Predicting Rainfall-Erosion Losses - A Guide to Conservation Planning. USDA Agriculture Handbook 282.Google Scholar