Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-19T03:00:19.249Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Communication in the Chaco World: A Consideration of Time and Labor Mobilization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 May 2022

W. H. Wills Open the ORCID record for W. H. Wills [Opens in a new window] ,
Paulina F. Przystupa  and
Katharine Williams
W. H. Wills*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Paulina F. Przystupa
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Katharine Williams
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
*
([email protected], corresponding author)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The construction of great houses during the Bonito Phase (ca. AD 850–1200) in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, required massive amounts of building material and efficient mobilization and coordination of large labor pools. We employ least cost path analysis (LCA) to explore the potential communication network among great house communities in the Chaco “core” area and its relevance in managing sustained labor for constructing great houses. The results suggest that that the primary sources of labor for communal building projects were agricultural communities located within one to three hours of the largest buildings in the canyon.

La construcción de las Casas Grandes durante el Fase Bonito (hacia 850-1200 dC) en Cañón Chaco, Nuevo México, requirió inmensas cantidades de materiales de construcción, la eficacia de movilización, y la coordinación de las grandes fuerzas laborales. Utilizamos Análisis de Camino de Menor Coste o “Least Cost Path Analysis” (LCPA) para examinar la potencial comunicación entre las comunidades de las Casas Grandes en el “central” área de Chaco. Los resultados sugieren que las fuentes primarias del trabajo fueron las comunidades agrícolas que se encontraron a una a tres horas de las construcciones más grandes del cañón.

Keywords

Chaco Canyonlabor mobilizationleast cost pathwaysCañón Chacola eficacia de movilizaciónanálisis de camino de menor coste
Type
Article
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 87 , Issue 3 , July 2022 , pp. 457 - 486
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for American Archaeology

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Agapiou, Andrew, Clausen, L. E., Flanagan, Roger, Norman, George, and Notram, David 1998 The Role of Logistics in the Materials Flow Control Process. Construction Management and Economics 16:131–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aguilar, Joseph R., and Preucel, Robert W. 2013 Sacred Mesas: Pueblo Time, Space, and History in the Aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. In The Death of Prehistory, edited by Schmidt, Peter R. and Mrozowski, Stephen A., pp. 267–289. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Aikens, Nancy J. 1984 Temporal Variation in Faunal Assemblages from Chaco Canyon. In Recent Research on Chaco Prehistory, edited by Judge, W. James and Schelberg, John D., pp. 225–240. Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Amsden, Charles W. 1992 Across the Colorado Plateau: Anthropological Studies for the Transwestern Pipeline Expansion Project: 3. Chaco Mesa Synthesis. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Batten, David C. 2007 Least-Cost Pathways, Exchange Routes, and Settlement Patterns in Late Prehistoric East-Central New Mexico. In Digital Discovery: Exploring New Frontiers in Human Heritage: CAA 2006, edited by Clark, Jeffery T. and Hagenmeister, Emily M., pp. 151–158. Archaeolingua, Budapest.Google Scholar
Beers, Ward 2014 Fire and Smoke: Ethnographic and Archaeological Evidence for Line-of-Sight Signaling in North America. In Enduring Curiosity, Generous Service: Papers in Honor of Sheila K. Brewer, edited by Condie, Carol J. and Crotty, Helen K., pp. 23–31. Archaeological Society of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Bernardini, Wesley 1999 Reassessing the Scale of Social Action at Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Kiva 64:447–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betancourt, Julio, Dean, Jeffrey S., and Hull, Herbert M. 1986 Prehistoric Long-Distance Transport of Construction Beams, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. American Antiquity 51:370–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Gary M., Windes, Thomas C., and McKenna, Peter J. 2008 Animas Anamnesis: Aztec Ruins or Anasazi Capital? In Chaco's Northern Prodigies: Salmon, Aztec, and the Ascendancy of the Middle San Juan Region after AD 1100, edited by Reed, Paul F., pp. 231–250. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Chapman, Richard C., Daniel, Carolyn L., and Schutt, Jeanne A. 1997 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Management. In Cycles of Closure: A Cultural Resources Inventory of Fort Wingate Depot Activity, New Mexico, edited by Schutt, Jeanne A. and Chapman, Richard C., pp. 335–352. Office of Contract Archaeology, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Cicmil, Svetlana, and Marshall, David 2005 Insights into Collaboration at the Project Level: Complexity, Social Interaction and Procurement Mechanisms. Building Research and Information 33:523–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Aaron, and Fritschle, Joy A GIS Analysis of the Pre-Columbian Chaco Landscape: Applying New Tools to Old Problems. Pennsylvania Geographer 49(2):101–116.Google Scholar
Cordell, Linda S. 1982 The Pueblo Period in the San Juan Basin, Northwestern New Mexico. In Remote Sensing in Cultural Resource Management: The San Juan Basin Project, edited by Drager, Dwight L. and Lyons, Thomas R., pp. 39–56. Cultural Resource Management Division, National Park Service, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Crabtree, Stefani A., Kyle Bocinsky, R., Hooper, Paul L., Ryan, Susan C., and Kohler, Timothy A. 2017 How to Make a Polity (in the Central Mesa Verde Region). American Antiquity 82:71–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crown, Patricia L. 2018 Drinking Performance and Politics in Pueblo Bonito. American Antiquity 83:387–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton, Jodi Lynn 2000 Spatial Organization of the Chaco Outliers: Visual Connections in the Red Mesa Valley. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Fullerton.Google Scholar
Dean, Jeffrey S. 1992 Environmental Factors in the Evolution of the Chacoan Sociopolitical System. In Anasazi Regional Organization and the Chaco System, edited by Doyel, David E., pp. 35–44. Anthropological Papers No. 5. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Dean, Jeffrey S., and Warren, Richard L. 1983 Dendrochronology. In The Architecture and Dendrochronology of Chetro Ketl, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 105–236. Reports of the Chaco Center No. 6. Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Doxater, Dennis 2002 A Hypothetical Layout of Chaco Canyon Structures via Large-Scale Alignments between Significant Natural Features. Kiva 68:23–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doyel, David E. 1992 Exploring Chaco. In Anasazi Regional Organization and the Chaco System, edited by Doyel, David E., pp. 3–14. Anthropological Papers No. 5. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Doyel, David E., Breterniz, Cory D., and Marshall, Michael P. 1984 Chacoan Community Structure: Bis Sa'ani Pueblo and the Chaco Halo. In Recent Research on Chaco Prehistory, edited by Judge, W. James and Schelberg, John D., pp. 37–54. Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Drager, Dwight L. 1976 Anasazi Population Estimates with the Aid of Data Derived from Photogrammetric Maps. In Remote Sensing Experiments in Cultural Resource Studies: Non-Destructive Methods of Archaeological Exploration, Survey and Analysis, assembled by Lyons, Thomas R., pp. 157–172. Reports of the Chaco Center No. 1. National Park Service and the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Dungan, Katherine A., White, Devin, Déderix, Sylviane, Mills, Barbara J., and Safi, Kristin 2018 A Total Viewshed Approach to Local Visibility in the Chaco World. Antiquity 92:905–921.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, Kathy Roler 2003 Function of Chaco-Era Great Houses. Kiva 69:141–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, Stephen R., and Durand, Kathy Roler 2000 Notes from the Edge: Settlement Pattern Changes at the Guadalupe Community. In Great House Communities across the Chacoan Landscape, edited by Kantner, John and Mahoney, Nancy M., pp. 101–110. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebert, James I., and Hitchcock, Robert K. 1980 Locational Modeling in the Analysis of the Prehistoric Roadway System at and around Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. In Cultural Resources Remote Sensing, edited by Lyons, Thomas R. and Mathien, Frances Joan, pp. 169–208. Remote Sensing Division, Southwest Cultural Resources Center, National Park Service and University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Ellis, Andrea 1991 Towers of the Gallina and Greater Southwest. In Puebloan Past and Present: Papers in Honor of Stewart Peckham, edited by Duran, Meliha S. and Kirkpatrick, David T., pp. 57–70. Annual Volume No. 17. Archaeological Society of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Field, Sean, Heitman, Carrie, and Richards-Risetto, Heather 2019 A Least Cost Analysis: Correlative Modeling of the Chaco Regional Road System. Journal of Computer Applications in Archaeology 2:136–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, Reginald G. 1934 Some Geographic Factors That Influenced the Ancient Populations of the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Bulletin No. 244. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Fitchen, John 1986 Building Construction before Mechanization. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Folsom, Franklin 1973 Indian Uprising on the Rio Grande: The Pueblo Revolt of 1680. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Fowler, Andrew P., and Stein, John R. 1992 The Anasazi Great House in Space, Time, and Paradigm. In Anasazi Regional Organization and the Chaco System, edited by Doyel, David E., pp. 101–122. Anthropological Papers No. 5. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Gibson, James J. 1986 The Ecological Approach to Perception. Psychology Press, New York.Google Scholar
Gilbert, Matthew Sakiestewa 2010 Hopi Footraces and American Marathons, 1912–1930. American Quarterly 62(1):77–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, Matthew Sakiestewa 2018 Hopi Runners: Crossing the Terrain between Indian and American. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilpin, Dennis 2003 Chaco-Era Site Clustering and the Concept of Community. Kiva 69:171–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gladwin, Harold S. 1945 The Chaco Branch Excavations at White Mound and in the Red Mesa Valley. Medallion Papers No. 33. Gila Pueblo, Globe, Arizona.Google Scholar
Guiterman, Christopher H., Baisan, Christopher H., English, Nathan B., Quade, Jay, Dean, Jeffrey S., and Swetnam, Thomas 2020 Convergence of Evidence Supports a Chuska Mountain Origin for the Plaza Tree of Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon. American Antiquity 85:331–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gustas, Robert, and Supernant, Kisha 2017 Least Cost Path Analysis of Early Maritime Movement on the Pacific Northwest Coast. Journal of Archaeological Science 78:40–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haas, Jonathan, and Creamer, Winifred 1993 Stress and Warfare among the Kayenta Anasazi of the Thirteenth Century A.D. Fieldiana Anthropology, New series, No. 21, Publication 1450. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagstrum, Melissa 2001 House Production in Chaco Canyon Society. American Antiquity 66:47–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamberger, Klaus 2018 Kinship as Logic of Space. Current Anthropology 59:525–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, Alden C. 1981 A Survey of Chaco Canyon Archaeology. In Archaeological Surveys of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, edited by Hayes, Alden C., Brugge, David M., and Judge, W. James, pp. 1–68. Publications in Archaeology 18A, Chaco Canyon Studies. National Park Service, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Hayes, Alden C., and Windes, Thomas C. 1975 An Anasazi Shrine in Chaco Canyon. In Papers in Honor of Florence Hawley Ellis, edited by Frisbie, Theodore R., pp. 143–156. Papers No. 2. Archaeological Society of New Mexico, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Heberling, Natalie 2011 Prehistoric Roads of New Mexico: A Synthesis of GIS and Remote Sensing Techniques. Master's thesis, Department of Geography, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. University of New Mexico Digital Repository, https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/geog_etds/7.Google Scholar
Hewett, Edgar Lee 1936 The Chaco Canyon and Its Monuments. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Howey, Meghan C. L. 2007 Using Multi-criteria Cost Surface Analysis to Explore Past Regional Landscapes: A Case Study of Ritual Activity and Social Interaction in Michigan, AD 1200–1600. Journal of Archaeological Sciences 34:1830–1846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howey, Meghan C. L. 2011 Multiple Pathways across Past Landscapes: Circuit Theory as a Complementary Geospatial Method to Least Cost Path for Modeling Past Movement. Journal of Archaeological Science 38:2523–2535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Irwin-Williams, Cynthia (editor) 1972 The Structure of Chacoan Society in the Northern Southwest, Investigations at the Salmon Site, 1972. Eastern New Mexico University, Portales.Google Scholar
Jett, Stephen C. 1994 Physical Characteristics of Navajo Trails, Canyon de Chelly, Arizona. Material Culture 26(1):37–48.Google Scholar
Johnson, Gregory A. 1989 Dynamics of Southwestern Prehistory: Far Outside – Looking In. In Dynamics of Southwest Prehistory, edited by Cordell, Linda S. and Gumerman, George J., pp. 371–390. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Judd, Neil M. 1964 The Architecture of Pueblo Bonito. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Judge, W. James 1989 Chaco Canyon—San Juan Basin. In Dynamics of Southwest Prehistory, edited by Cordell, Linda S. and Gumerman, George J., pp. 209–262. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Kantner, John 2003 Rethinking Chaco as a System. Kiva 69:207–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kantner, John, and Hobgood, Ronald 2003 Digital Technologies and Prehistoric Landscapes in the American Southwest. In The Reconstruction of Archaeological Landscapes through Digital Technologies, edited by Forte, Maurizio and Williams, Patrick Ryan, pp. 117–123. BAR International Series 1151. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Kantner, John, and Hobgood, Ronald 2016 A GIS-Based Viewshed Analysis of Chacoan Tower Kivas in the US Southwest: Were They for Seeing or to Be Seen? Antiquity 90:1302–1317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kantner, John, and Kintigh, Keith W. 2006 The Chaco World. In The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon: An Eleventh-Century Pueblo Regional Center, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 153–188. School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Kantner, John, and Mahoney, Nancy M. 2000 Chacoan Archaeology and Great House Communities. In Great House Communities across the Chacoan Landscape, edited by Kantner, John and Mahoney, Nancy M., pp. 1–16. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 64. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Kantner, John, and Vaughn, Kevin J. 2012 Pilgrimage as Costly Signal: Religiously Motivated Cooperation in Chaco and Nasca. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31:66–82.Google Scholar
Kelly, Klara, and Francis, Harris 2005 Traditional Navajo Maps and Wayfinding. American Indian Culture and Research Journal 29(2):85–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kincaid, Chris (editor) 1983 Chaco Roads Project Phase I: A Reappraisal of Prehistoric Roads in the San Juan Basin. Bureau of Land Management, New Mexico State Office, Albuquerque District Office, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
King, Valerie C. 2003 The Organization and Production of Chuska Gray Ware Ceramics for Distribution and Consumption in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Kunitz, J. K., Lagree, J. D. and Weinig, D. L. 2017 A GIS Examination of the Chacoan Great North Road. Kiva 83:86–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lange, Richard C. 2012 Building a Cliff Dwelling, Building a Pueblo: Some Measures of Labor in Prehistoric Construction. Kiva 77:359–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 1983 Construction History of Chetro Ketl. In The Architecture and Dendrochronology of Chetro Ketl, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 241–274. Reports of the Chaco Center No. 6. Division of Cultural Resources, National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 1984 Great Pueblo Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Publications in Archaeology 18B, Chaco Canyon Series. National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 1991 Settlement Patterns and the Chaco Region. In Chaco and Hohokam: Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest, edited by Crown, Patricia L. and Judge, W. James, pp. 31–76. School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 1999 The Chaco Meridian: Centers of Political Power in the Ancient Southwest. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 2007 Great House Form. In The Architecture of Chaco Canyon, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 7–41. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H. 2009 A History of the Ancient Southwest. School for Advanced Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H., Windes, Thomas C., and McKenna, Peter J. 2006 Architecture. In The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon: An Eleventh-Century Pueblo Regional Center, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 67–116. School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Lekson, Stephen H., Windes, Thomas C., Stein, John R., and James Judge, W. 1988 The Chaco Canyon Community. Scientific American 256(7):100–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, Jeffrey 1992 Protecting Ancient Ruins: Chaco Canyon. The Getty Conservation Institute. Electronic document, https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/newsletters/7_2/chaco.html, accessed December 1, 2021.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Daniel E., Mahaffey, Mickey, Cubesare Quimare, Silvino, Holowka, Nicholas B., Wallace, Ian J., and Baggish, Aaron L. 2020 Running in Tarahumara (Rarámuri) Culture: Persistence Hunting, Footracing, Dancing, Work, and the Fallacy of the Athletic Savage. Current Anthropology 61:356–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liebmann, Matthew 2008 The Innovative Materiality of Revitalization Movements: Lessons from the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. American Anthropologist 110:360–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liebmann, Matthew, and Preucel, Robert W. 2015 The Archaeology of the Pueblo Revolt and the Formation of the Modern Pueblo World. Kiva 73:195–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llobera, Marcos 2020 Memory at Your Feet: Modeling the Agency of Past Trails. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29. DOI:10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102177.Google Scholar
Love, David 1977 Dynamics of Sedimentation and Geomorphic History of Chaco Canyon National Monument, New Mexico. In New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 28th Field Conference, San Juan Basin III, edited by Fawcett, James E. and James, Henry L., pp. 291–300. New Mexico Geological Society, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Lyons, Thomas R., and Hitchcock, Robert K. 1977 Remote Sensing Interpretation of an Anasazi Land Route System. In Aerial Remote Sensing Techniques in Archeology, edited by Lyons, Thomas R. and Hitchcock, Robert K., pp. 111–134. Reports of the Chaco Center No. 2. National Park Service and University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Mackey, James, and Green, R. C. 1979 Largo-Gallina Towers: An Explanation. American Antiquity 44:144–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahoney, Nancy M. 2000 Redefining the Scale of Chacoan Communities. In Great House Communities across the Chacoan Landscape, edited by Kantner, John and Mahoney, Nancy M., pp. 17–38. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 64. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Mahoney, Nancy M. 2001 Monumental Architecture as Conspicuous Display in Chaco Canyon. In Chaco Society and Polity: Papers from the 1999 Conference, edited by Cordell, Linda S., Judge, W. James, and Piper, June-el, pp. 13–30. Special Publication No. 4. New Mexico Archaeological Council, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Malville, J. Mckim, and Malville, Nancy J. 2001 Pilgrimage and Periodic Festivals as Processes of Social Integration in Chaco Canyon. Kiva 66:327–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, Michael P. 1994 Standing Rock Community Survey. In Synthesis and Conclusions: Communities, Boundaries, and Cultural Variation. Volume XX, Across the Colorado Plateau: Anthropological Studies for the Transwestern Pipeline Expansion Project, edited by Winter, Joseph C., pp. 178–186. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Marshall, Michael P. 1997 The Chacoan Roads: A Cosmological Interpretation. In Anasazi Architecture and American Design, edited by Morrow, Baker H. and Price, V. B., pp. 62–76. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Marshall, Michael P., Stein, John R., Loose, Richard W., and Novotny, Judith E. 1979 Anasazi Communities of the San Juan Basin. Historic Preservation Division of New Mexico, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Martin, Dustin 2020 Indigenous Running: Modern Opportunity Defined by Ancestral Endurance. YouTube, September 9. UNM Anthropology Colloquium Series. https://youtu.be/arW4NlK14sI, accessed October 14, 2021.Google Scholar
Mathien, Frances Joan 1991 Political, Economic, and Demographic Implications of the Chaco Road Network. In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Trombold, Charles D., pp. 99–110. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
McHenry, Paul G. Jr. 1984 Adobe and Rammed Earth Buildings: Design and Construction. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
McKenna, Peter J., and Truell, Marcia L. 1986 Small Site Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Publications in Archaeology 18D, Chaco Canyon Studies. National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Mills, Barbara J. 2002 Recent Research at Chaco: Changing Views on Economy, Ritual and Power. Journal of Archaeological Research 10:65–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, Barbara J., Peeples, Matthew A., Aragon, Leslie D., Bellorado, Benjamin A., Clark, Jeffery J., Giomi, Evan, and Windes, Thomas C. 2018 Evaluating Chaco Migration Scenarios Using Dynamic Social Network Analysis. Antiquity 92:922–939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mindeleff, Victor 1989 A Study of Pueblo Architecture in Tusayan and Cibola. Reprinted. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Originally published 1891, 8th Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Mortensen, C. David 1972 Communication: The Study of Human Interaction. McGraw-Hill, New York.Google Scholar
Mortensen, C. David (editor) 2017 Communication Theory. Routledge, Abingdon, United Kingdom.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, Andrew W., and McKim Malville, J. 2011 Ancestors and the Sun: Astronomy, Architecture and Culture at Chaco Canyon. In “Oxford IX” International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 278, edited by Ruggles, Clive L. N., pp. 255–264.Google Scholar
Nabokov, Peter, and Easton, Robert 1990 Native American Architecture. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Naroll, Raoul 1962 Floor Area and Settlement Population. American Antiquity 27:587–589.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neitzel, Jill 1989 The Chacoan Regional System: Interpreting the Evidence for Sociopolitical Complexity. In The Sociopolitical Structure of Prehistoric Southwestern Societies, edited by Upham, Steadman, Lightfoot, Kent G., and Jewett, Roberta A., pp. 509–556. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Nelson, Ben A. 1995 Complexity, Hierarchy, and Scale: A Controlled Comparison between Chaco Canyhon, New Mexico, and La Quemada, Zacatecas. American Antiquity 60:597–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nials, Fred L., Stein, John R., and Roney, John R. 1987 Chacoan Roads in the Southern Periphery: Results of Phase II of the BLM Chaco Roads Project. Cultural Resources Series I. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Obernauf, Margaret S. 1991 Photointerpretation of Chacoan Roads. In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Trombold, Charles D., pp. 34–41. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Pierson, Lloyd M. 1949 The Prehistoric Population of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico: A Study in Methods and Techniques of Prehistoric Population Estimation. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Plog, Stephen 2010 Reflections on the State of Chacoan Research: A Review Essay. Kiva 75:377–395.Google Scholar
Plog, Stephen 2018 Dimensions and Dynamics of Pre-Hispanic Pueblo Organization and Authority: The Chaco Canyon Conundrum. In Puebloan Societies: Homology and Heterogeneity in Time and Space, edited by Whiteley, Peter M., pp. 237–260. School for Advanced Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico; University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Powers, Robert P., Gillespie, William B., and Lekson, Stephen H. 1983 The Outlier Survey: A Regional Overview of Settlement in the San Juan Basin. Reports of the Chaco Center No. 3. Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Price, Douglas, Plog, Stephen, LeBlanc, Steven A., and Krigbaum, John 2016 Great House Origins and Population Stability at Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico: The Isotopic Evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 11:261–273.Google Scholar
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) 1980 The Chaco Legacy. Written, produced, and directed by Graham Chedd. Odyssey Series, Public Broadcasting Associates Inc., Boston.Google Scholar
Pulatsu, Bora, Bretas, Eduardo M., and Lourenco, Paulo B. 2016 Discrete Element Modeling of Masonry Structures: Validation and Application. Earthquakes and Structures 11:563–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roney, John R. 1992 Prehistoric Roads and Regional Interaction in the Chacoan System. In Anasazi Regional Organization and the Chaco System, edited by Doyel, David E., pp. 123–131. Anthropological Papers No. 5. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, Robert M., and Tuñón, Antonio Martínez 2020 Changing Olmec Trade Routes Understood through Least Cost Path Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 118. DOI:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Safi, Kristin Naree 2014 Using Least Cost Pathways to Understand the Processes of Migration from the Mesa Verde Region during the Pueblo III Period. Kiva 80:28–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schachner, Gregson 2015 Ancestral Pueblo Archaeology: The Value of Synthesis. Journal of Archaeological Research 23:49–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schelberg, John D. 1982 Economic and Social Development as an Adaptation to Marginal Environments. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.Google Scholar
Schelberg, John D. 1984 Analogy, Complexity, and Regionally Based Perspectives. Recent Research on Chaco Prehistory, edited by Schelberg, John D. and James Judge, W., pp. 5–21. Reports of the Chaco Center Number 8, Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Schreiber, Stephen D. 1997 Engineering Feats of the Anasazi: Buildings, Roads, and Dams. In Anasazi Architecture and American Design, edited by Morrow, Baker H. and Price, V. B., pp. 77–87. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Sebastian, Lynne 1991 Sociopolitical Complexity and the Chaco System. Chaco and Hohokam: Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest, edited by Crown, Patricia L. and James Judge, W., pp. 109–134. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Sebastian, Lynne 1992 The Chaco Anasazi: Sociopolitical Evolution in the Prehistoric Southwest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Sebastian, Lynne 2006 The Chaco Synthesis. In The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon: An Eleventh-Century Pueblo Regional Center, edited by Lekson, Stephen H., pp. 393–420. School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Sever, Thomas L., and Wagner, David W. 1991 Analysis of Prehistoric Roadways in Chaco Canyon Using Remotely Sensed Digital Data. In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World, edited by Trombold, Charles D., pp. 42–51. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Snead, James E. 2017 Forgotten Maps and the Archaeology of Chaco “Roads.” Kiva 83:1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snead, James E., Erikson, Clark, and Darling, J. Andrew 2009 Making Human Space: The Archaeology of Trails, Paths and Roads. In Landscapes of Movement: Trails Paths and Roads in Anthropological Perspective, edited by Snead, James E., Erikson, Clark, and Darling, J. Andrew, pp. 1–19. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Snygg, John, and Windes, Thomas C. 1998 Long, Wide Roads and Great Kiva Roofs. Kiva 64:7–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sofaer, Ann, Marshall, Michael P., and Sinclair, Rolf M. 1989 The Great North Road: A Cosmographic Expression of the Chaco Culture of New Mexico. In World Archaeoastronomy, edited by Aveni, Anthony F., pp. 365–376. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Sperber, D., and Wilson, D. 1986 Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Taliaferro, Matthew S., Schriever, Bernard A., and Shackley, M. Steven 2010 Obsidian Procurement, Least Cost Path Analysis, and Social Interaction in the Mimbres Area of Southwestern New Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science 37:536–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tobler, Waldo R. 1993 Non-Isotropic Geographic Modeling. In Three Presentations on Geographical Analysis and Modeling, edited by Tobler, Waldo R.. Technical Report 93-1. National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, Santa Barbara, California.Google Scholar
Uzzi, Brian, Amaral, Luis A. N., and Felix-Tsochas 2007 Small-World Networks and Management Science Research: A Review. European Management Review 4:77–91.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Ruth M. 2007 The Chaco Experience: Landscape and Ideology at the Center Place. School for Advanced Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Ruth M. 2018 From Enchantment to Agencement: Archaeological Engagements with Pilgrimage. Journal of Social Archaeology 18:348–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Dyke, Ruth M. 2019 Chaco Gathers: Experience and Assemblage in the Ancient Southwest. In New Materialisms, Ancient Urbanisms, edited by Alt, Susan M. and Pauketat, Timothy R., pp. 40–64. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Ruth M., Bocinsky, Kyle, Windes, Thomas C., and Robinson, Tucker J. 2016 Great Houses, Shrines, and High Places: Intervisibility in the Chacoan World. American Antiquity 81:205–230.Google Scholar
Verhagen, Philip, Joyce, Jamie, and Geoenhuijzen, Mark R. 2019 Finding the Limits of the Limes: Modelling Demography, Economy and Transport on the Edge of the Roman Empire. Springer International, Cham, Switzerland. Electronic document, http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/23061, accessed April 30, 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vivian, R. Gwinn 1970 An Inquiry into Prehistoric Social Organization in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. In Reconstructing Prehistoric Pueblo Societies, edited by Longacre, William A., pp. 59–83. School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Vivian, R. Gwinn 1974 Conservation and Diversion: Water-Control Systems in the Anasazi Southwest. In Irrigation's Impact on Society, edited by Downing, Theodore E. and Gibson, McGuire, pp. 95–112. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 25. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Vivian, R. Gwinn 1990 The Chacoan Prehistory of the San Juan Basin. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Vivian, R. Gwinn 1992 Chacoan Water Use and Managerial Decision Making. In Anasazi Regional Organization and the Chaco System, edited by Doyel, David E., pp. 45–58. Anthropological Papers No. 5. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Vivian, R. Gwinn 1997 Chacoan Roads: Function. Kiva 63:35–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vivian, Gordon, and Mathews, Tom W. 1965 Kin Kletso: A Pueblo III Community in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, Globe, Arizona.Google Scholar
Vivian, R. Gwinn, Van West, Carla R., Dean, Jeffrey S., Akins, Nancy J., Toll, Mollie S., and Windes, Thomas C. 2006 Ecology and Economy. In The Archaeology of Chaco Canyon: An Eleventh-Century Pueblo Regional Center, pp. 45–66. School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Ware, John A., and Gumerman, George J. 1977 Remote Sensing Methodology and the Chaco Canyon Prehistoric Road System. In Aerial Remote Sensing Techniques in Archaeology, edited by Lyons, Thomas R. and Hitchcock, Robert K., pp. 135–168. Reports of the Chaco Center No. 2. National Park Service and University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Watts, Duncan J., and Strogatz, Steven H. 1998 Collective Dynamics of “Small World” Networks. Nature 393:440–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinig, Donald L. 2017 Construction Timber Transport to Chaco Canyon: Prehistoric Rolling Roads? Kiva 83:66–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheelbarger, Linda 2008 New Research in the Middle San Juan Region. In Chaco's Northern Prodigies: Salmon, Aztec, and the Ascendancy of the Middle San Juan Region after AD 1100, edited by Reed, Paul F., pp. 209–250. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
White, David A. 2015 The Basics of Least Cost Analysis for Archaeological Applications. Advances in Archaeological Practice 3:407–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitely, Peter 2015 Chacoan Kinship. In Chaco Revisited: New Research on the Prehistory of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, edited by Heitman, Carrie C. and Plog, Stephen, pp. 272–304. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Wilcox, David R. 1996 Pueblo III People and Polity in Relational Contexts. In The Prehistoric Pueblo World A.D. 1150–1350, edited by Adler, Michael A., pp. 241–272. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Wills, W. H. 2000 Political Leadership and the Construction of Chacoan Great Houses, A.D. 1020–1140. In Alternative Leadership Strategies in the Prehispanic Southwest, edited by Mills, Barbara J., pp. 19–44. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Wills, W. H. 2017 Water Management and the Political Economy of Chaco Canyon during the Bonito Phase (ca. AD 850–1200). Kiva 83:369–413.Google Scholar
Wills, W. H., and Dorshow, Wetherbee B. 2012 Agriculture and Community in Chaco Canyon: Revisiting Pueblo Alto. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31:138–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wills, W. H., Drake, Brandon L., and Dorshow, Wetherbee B. 2014 Prehistoric Deforestation at Chaco Canyon? PNAS 111:11584–11591.Google ScholarPubMed
Wills, W. H., Williams, Katharine, Murphy, Beau, Przystupa, Paulina, Dorshow, Wetherbee B. 2021 The Pueblo Bonito Mounds: Formation History, Architectural Context and Representational Fields. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 63. DOI:10.1016/j.jaa.2021.101322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Windes, Thomas C. 1984 A New Look at Population in Chaco Canyon. In Recent Research on Chaco Prehistory, edited by Judge, W. James and Schelberg, John D., pp. 75–88. Reports of the Chaco Center No. 8. Division of Cultural Research, National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Windes, Thomas C. 1987 Investigations at the Pueblo Alto Complex, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico 1975–1979: 1. Summary of Tests and Excavations at the Pueblo Alto Community. National Park Service, Santa Fe, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Windes, Thomas C. 2015 Early Puebloan Occupations in the Chaco Region: I. Excavations and Survey of Basketmaker III and Pueblo I Sites, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, Part 1. Archaeological Series 214. Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Windes, Thomas C., and McKenna, Peter J. 2001 Going against the Grain: Wood Production in Chacoan Society. American Antiquity 66:119–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winter, Joseph C. 1994 Conclusions and Synthesis. In Across the Colorado Plateau: Anthropological Studies for the Transwestern Pipeline Expansion Project, Vol. 20. Office of Contract Archaeology, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Zhu, Jin, and Mostafavi, Ali 2017 Discovering Complexity and Emergent Properties in Project Systems: A New Approach to Understanding Project Performance. International Journal of Project Management 35:1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Wills et al. supplementary material

Wills et al. supplementary material 1

Download Wills et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 119.1 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Wills et al. supplementary material

Wills et al. supplementary material 2

Download Wills et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 1.1 MB