Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T16:18:27.045Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Maize Productivity in the Eastern Woodlands and Great Plains of North America

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Sissel Schroeder
Sissel Schroeder*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Archaeologists and ethnohistorians have long been interested in quantifying potential maize productivity for late prehistoric and early historic Native Americans of the Eastern Woodlands. Maize yields obtained by Native Americans using traditional farming techniques in the nineteenth century are compared to yields obtained by nineteenth-century Native Americans using plows, and nineteenth- and twentieth-century farmers in Illinois and Missouri. The result is a notion of average resource productivity for maize that is more reasonable and modest than previous estimates. In this study, the mean yield of maize for nineteenth-century Native American groups who did not use plows was 18.9 bu/acre (stdev=4.1) (1,185.4 kg/ha [stdev=254.1]). Yields on the order of 10 bu/acre (627.2 kg/ha) probably are closer to the average prehistoric yields that were available for subsistence purposes. The mean size of gardens cultivated by nineteenth-century Native American families without plows was .59 acre (stdev=.45) (.24 ha [stdev=.18]). These newly compiled data are used to generate a model of nuclear family household economy and minimal and maximal garden sizes given different levels of maize productivity and consumption. Population estimates made on the basis of previous assessments of high rates of resource productivity will need to be reevaluated.

Résumé

Résumé

Cuantificar la productividadpotencial de maíz de los grupos indígenas que habitaban la región boscosa oriental de Norteamérica durante los períodos Prehistorico Tardío e Historico Temprano ha sido un objetivo largamente acariciado por arqueólogos y etnohistoriadores. Este artículo examina los rendimientos en el cultivo de maíz que grupos indígenas munidos de técnicas tradicionales obtenían durante el siglo XIX, comparándolos con los logrados por grupos similares provistos de arados y con aquellos obtenidos durante los siglos XIX y XX por granjeros en Illinois y Missouri. De estas comparaciones surge una productividad promedio de recursos que, para el caso del maíz, resulta más moderada y creíble que las estimadas anteriormente. De acuerdo a estos cálculos, los indígenas que durante el siglo XIX cultivaban maíz sin utilizar el arado habrían obtenido un rendimiento promedio por hectárea de 1.185,4 kg., con una desviación estándar de 254,1 (18,9 bushels por acre, con una desviación estándar de 4,1). Rendimientos de 627,2 kg. por hectárea (10 bushels por acre) están probablemente más cerca de los promedios prehistóricos que habrían estado disponibles para propósitos de subsistencia. El tamaño promedio de las huertas cultivadas porfamilias indígenas durante el siglo XIX sería de 0,24 hectárea, con una desviacion estándar de0,18 (0,59 acre, con una desviación estándar de 0,45). Esta recientemente recopilada información se utiliza para generar un modelo de economía doméstica para lafamilia nuclear y para estimar las areas máxima y mínima de los huertos, basado en los diferentes niveles de productividad y consumo de maíz. Como consecuencia de lo anterior, aquellas estimaciones de población que hay an sido realizadas en base a altos niveles de productividad de recursos tendrán que ser necesariamente reevaluadas.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 64 , Issue 3 , July 1999 , pp. 499 - 516
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adair, J. 1775 The History of the American Indians. Edward and Charles Dilly, London.Google Scholar
Allan, W. 1965 The African Husbandman. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. G., Statue, D. W., and Cleaveland, M. R. 1995 Paleoclimate and the Potential Food Reserves of Mississippian Societies: A Case Study from the Savannah River Valley. American Antiquity 60: 258–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anonymous, 1837 Illinois in 1837: A Sketch Descriptive of the Situation, Boundaries, Face of the Country, Prominent Districts, Prairies, Rivers, Minerals, Animals, Agricultural Productions, Public Lands, Plans of Internal Improvement, Manufactures &c. of the State of Illinois. Grigg and Elliot, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Baden, W. W. 1987 A Dynamic Model of Stability and Change in Mississippian Agricultural Systems. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Barbour, P. (editor) 1986 The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580-1631), vol. 2. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Bartram, W. 1973 [ 1792] Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.Google Scholar
Beck, L. 1823 A Gazetteer of the States of Illinois and Missouri. Charles R. and George Webster, Albany, New York.Google Scholar
Bennett, C. E. 1955 The Food Economy of the New England Indians, 1606-75. The Journal of Political Economy 63: 369–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourne, E. G. (translator) 1904 Narratives of the Career of De Soto. 2 vols. A. S. Barnes, New York.Google Scholar
Bremer, R. G. 1987 Indian Agent and Wilderness Scholar: The Life of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. Clark Historical Library, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant.Google Scholar
Brewer, W. H. 1883 Report on the Cereal Production of the United States. In Report on the Productions of Agriculture as Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880), Department of the Interior, Census Office. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Broida, M. 1984 An Estimate of the Percents of Maize in the Diets of Two Kentucky Fort Ancient Villages. In Late Prehistoric Research in Kentucky, edited by Pollack, D., Hockensmith, C., and Sanders, T., pp. 68–83. The Kentucky Heritage Council, Frankfort.Google Scholar
Brown, J. A. 1996 The Spiro Ceremonial Center: The Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma. Memoirs No. 29. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. 1992 Diet and Disease in Late Prehistory. In Disease and Demography in the Americas, edited by Verano, J. W. and Ubelaker, D.H. pp. 87–101. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., Bullington, J., Charles, D. K., Cook, D. C., 1987 Diet, Demography, and the Development of Horticulture. In Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, edited by Keegan, W. F., pp. 67–85. Occasional Paper No. 7. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., and Milner, G. R. 1991 Isotopic and Archaeological Interpretations of Diet in the Central Mississippi Valley. Journal of Archaeological Science 18: 319–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buikstra, J. E., Rose, J. C., and Milner, G. R. 1994 A Carbon Isotopic Perspective on Dietary Variation in Late Prehistoric Western Illinois. In Agricultural Origins and Development in the Midcontinent, edited by Green, W., pp. 155–170. Report No. 19. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Burnett, E. K. 1945 The Spiro Mound Collection in the Museum. Contribution No. 14. Museum of the American Indian Heye Foundation, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capron, L. 1953 The Medicine Bundles of the Florida Seminole and the Green Corn Dance. Anthropological Paper 35. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 151: 155–209.Google Scholar
Carter, W. E. 1969 New Lands and Old Traditions: Kekchi Cultivators in the Guatemalan Lowlands. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Coale, A. J., and Demeny, P. 1983 Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations, 2nd ed. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Cook, S. F. 1972 Prehistoric Demography. Modular Publications 16: 1–42. Addison-Wesley, New York.Google Scholar
Cowgill, U. M. 1962 An Agricultural Study of the Southern Maya Lowlands. American Anthropologist (A-.TTi-lft. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crosby, A. W. Jr. 1972 The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Greenwood, Westport, Connecticut.Google Scholar
DeBow, J. D. B. 1854 Statistical View of the United States Embracing its Territory, Population-White, Free Colored, and Slave-Moral and Social Condition, Industry, Property, and Revenue; the Detailed Statistics of Cities, Towns, and Counties; Being a Compendium of the Seventh Census to Which are Added the Results of Every Previous Census, Beginning with 1790, in Comparative Tables, with Explanatory and Illustrative Notes, Based upon the Schedules and Other Official Sources of Information. Seventh Census, U.S. Census Office, 1850, vol. 4. Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Dechene, L. 1974 Habitants et Marchands de Montreal au XVIf Steele. Plon, Paris.Google Scholar
Department of the Interior, Census Office 1883 Report on the Productions of Agriculture as Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880). Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Donaldson, T. 1893 Moqui Pueblo Indians of Arizona and Pueblo Indians of New Mexico. Eleventh Census of the United States, Extra Census Bulletin. U.S. Census Printing Office, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Doofittle, W E. 1992 Agriculture in North America on the Eve of Contact: A Reassessment. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82: 386–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draper, L. C. 1888 Antoine Le Clair's Statement. Fragmentary Notes Taken by Lyman C. Draper. Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin 11: 238–242.Google Scholar
Ekberg, C. J. 1998 French Roots in the Illinois Country: The Mississippi Frontier in Colonial Times. University of Illinois Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Emerson, T. W 1982 Mississippian Stone Images in Illinois. Circular No. 6. Illinois Archaeological Survey, Urbana.Google Scholar
Emerson, T. W 1997a Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Emerson, T. W 1997b Cahokian Elite Ideology and the Mississippian Cosmos. In Cahokia and Ideology in the Mississippian World, edited by Pauketat, T. R. and Emerson, T.E. pp. 190–228. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Emerson, T. W, and Jackson, D. K. 1984 The BBB Motor Site. American Bottom Archaeology FAI-270 Site Reports No. 6. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Ensminger, A. H., Ensminger, M. E., Konlande, J. E., and K., J. R. 1994 Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. 2 vols. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.Google Scholar
Fletcher, A. C, and Hesche, F. La 1992 The Omaha Tribe, Vol. 1. Reprinted. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. Originally published 1911, Twenty- Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Fletcher, S. W 1950 Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life, 1640-1840. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.Google Scholar
Flint, T. 1968 [1826] Recollections of the Last Ten Years, Passed in Occasional Residences and Joumeyings in the Valley of the Mississippi. Da Capo Press, New York.Google Scholar
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States (FAO) 1992 Maize in Human Nutrition. FAO Food and Nutrition Series No. 25. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.Google Scholar
Fortier, A. C. 1992a Interpretation. In The Sponemann Site 2: The Mississippian and Oneota Occupations, by Jackson, D.K., Fortier, A.C., and Williams, J.A., pp. 339–348. American Bottom Archaeology FAI-270 Site Reports No. 24. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Fortier, A. C. 1992b Stone Figurines. In The Sponemann Site 2: The Mis sissippian and Oneota Occupations, by Jackson, D.K., Fortier, A.C., and Williams, J.A., pp. 277–303. American Bottom Archaeology FAI-270 Site Reports No. 24. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.Google Scholar
Gallagher, J. P. 1989 Agricultural Intensification and Ridged-Field Cultivation in the Prehistoric Upper Midwest of North America. In Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation, edited by Harris, D. R. and Hillman, G. C., pp. 572–584. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Gallagher, J. P., and Arzigian, C. M. 1994 A New Perspective on Late Prehistoric Agricultural Intensification in the Upper Missisippi River Valley. In Agricultural Origins and Development in the Midcontinent, edited by Green, W., pp. 171–188. Report No. 19. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Gookin, D. 1970 [ 1792] Historical Collections of the Indians of New England. Towtaid, Spencer, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Greer, A. 1985 Peasant, Lord, and Merchant. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, J. B. 1967 Eastern North American Archaeology: A Summary. Science 156: 175–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halstead, P. 1989 The Economy has a Normal Surplus: Economic Stability and Social Change among Early Farming Communities of Thessaly, Greece. In Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty, edited by Halstead, P. and O'Shea, J. M., pp. 68–80. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, H. W. 1952 The Spiro Mound. Missouri Archaeologist 14: 1–276.Google Scholar
Hassan, F. A, 1981 Demographic Anthropology. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Hastorf, C. A., and Johannessen, S., 1994 Becoming Corn-Eaters in Prehistoric America. In Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World, edited by Johannessen, S. and Hastorf, C.A. pp. 427–143. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Heidenreich, C. E. 1971 Huronia: A History and Geography of the Huron Indians, 1600-1650. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto.Google Scholar
Heidenreich, C. E. 1978 Huron. In Northeast, edited by Trigger, B. G., pp. 368–388. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Hinsdale, W. B. 1968 Distribution of the Aboriginal Population of Michigan. Reprinted. Originally published 1923, Occasional Contributions No. 2. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Howard, J. H. 1968 The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex and its Interpretation. Missouri Archaeological Society Memoir 6.Google Scholar
Hudson, C. 1976 The Southeastern Indians. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Hurt, R. D. 1987 Indian Agriculture in America: Prehistory to the Present. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Hurt, R. D. 1878 Crop Prospects: Com. Illinois State Journal, Circular 44: 16–17.Google Scholar
Hurt, R. D. 1891 Crop Report: Corn. Illinois State Journal, Circular 155: 32–34.Google Scholar
Hurt, R. D. 1998 Agriculture Statistics, Crop History, <http://www.agr. state.il.us/histcrop.htm> May 19.+May+19.>Google Scholar
Johannessen, S. 1993 Farmers of the Late Woodland. In Foraging and Farming in the Eastern Woodlands, edited by Scarry, C. M., pp. 57–77. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Judd, S. 1905 [1863] History of Hadley, Including the Early History of Hatfield, South Hadley, Amherst, and Grandby, Massachusetts. Metcalf, Northampton, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. A., Schwarcz, H. P., Knyf, M., and Melbye, F. J. 1995 Stable Isotope Evidence for Maize Horticulture and Paleodiet in Southern Ontario, Canada. American Antiquity 60: 335–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, I. T, and Palerm, A. 1952 The Tajin Totonac: Part I. History, Subsistence, Shelter and Technology. Institute of Social Anthropology Publication No. 13. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Kennedy, J. C. G. 1864 Agriculture of the United States in 1860; Compiled from the Original Returns of the Eighth Census. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Kroeber, A. L. 1939 Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology No. 38. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Lawson, J. 1967 [1709] A New Voyage to Carolina. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Lebo, C. J. 1991 Anasazi Harvests: Agroclimate, Harvest Variability, and Agricultural Strategies on Prehistoric Black Mesa. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington.Google Scholar
Le Page du Pratz, A. S. 1975 [1774] The History of Louisiana. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.Google Scholar
Logan, M. H., and Sanders, W. T. 1976 The Model. In The Valley of Mexico, edited by Wolf, E. R., pp. 31–58. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Lopinot, N. H. 1994 A New Crop of Data on the Cahokia Polity. In Agricultural Origins and Development in the Midcontinent, edited by Green, W., pp. 127–153. Report No. 19. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Lundell, C. L. 1937 The Vegetation ofPeten. Publication No. 478. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Lynott, M. J., Boutton, T. W., Price, J. E., and Nelson, D. E. 1986 Stable Carbon Isotopic Evidence for Maize Agriculture in Southeast Missouri and Northeast Arkansas. American Antiquity 51: 51–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marston, M. 1912 Letter to Reverend Dr. Jedediah Morse, commanding at Fort Armstrong, Illinois, November, 1820. In The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes, edited by Blair, E. H., vol. 2, pp. 137–182. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Milner, G. R. 1998 The Cahokia Chiefdom. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Missouri Department of Agriculture 1960 Missouri Annual Crop and Livestock Production, by Counties, 1941-1960. The Bulletin. State Department of Agriculture, Jefferson City, Missouri.Google Scholar
Missouri Department of Agriculture 1986 Archaeology of the Lower Ohio River Valley. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Missouri Department of Agriculture 1987 Salt, Chert, and Shell: Mississippian Exchange and Economy. In Specialization, Exchange, and Complex Societies, edited by Brumfiel, E. and Earle, T. K., pp. 10–21. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Missouri Department of Agriculture 1997 Mississippian Political Economy. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Nass, J. Jr. 1988 Fort Ancient Agricultural Systems and Settlement: A View from Southwestern Ohio. North American Archaeologist 9: 319–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Research Council (NRC) 1989 Recommended Dietary Allowances. 10th ed. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Odell, R. T., and Oschwald, W. R. 1970 Productivity of Illinois Soils. Circular 1016. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana.Google Scholar
O'Shea, J. M. 1989 The Role of Wild Resources in Small-Scale Agricultural Systems: Tales from the Lakes and Plains. In Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty, edited by Halstead, P. and M, J.. O'Shea, pp. 57–67. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, A. C. 1968 Parker on the Iroquois. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.Google Scholar
Peck, J. M. 1993 [1837] A Gazetteer of Illinois. Heritage Books, Bowie, Maryland.Google Scholar
Peebles, C. S. 1978 Determinants of Settlement Size and Location in the Moundville Phase. In Mississippian Settlement Patterns, edited by Smith, B. D., pp. 369^116. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Perino, G. H. 1971 The Mississippian Component at the Schild Site (No. 4), Greene Co., Illinois. In Mississippian Site Archaeology in Illinois I: Site Reports from the St. Louis and Chicago Areas, pp. 1–148. Illinois Archaeological Survey Bulletin No. 10. Illinois Archaeological Survey, Urbana.Google Scholar
Phillips, P., and Brown, J. A. 1978 Pre-Columbian Shell Engravings from the Craig Mound at Spiro, Oklahoma. 2 vols. Peabody Museum Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Potter, S. R. 1993 Commoners, Tribute, and Chiefs: The Development of Algonquian Culture in the Potomac Valley. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville.Google Scholar
Prentice, G. 1986 An Analysis of the Symbolism Expressed by the Birger Figurine. American Antiquity 51: 239–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reidhead, V. A. 1981 A Linear Programming Model of Prehistoric Subsistence Optimization: A Southeastern Indiana Example. Prehistory Research Series No. 6, vol. 1. Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.Google Scholar
Richter, D. K. 1992 The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Riley, T. J. 1987 Ridged-Field Agriculture and the Mississippian Economic Pattern. In Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, edited by Keegan, W. F., pp. 295–304. Occasional Paper No. 7. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Sanders, W. T. 1976 The Agricultural History of the Basin of Mexico. In The Valley of Mexico, edited by Wolf, E. R., pp. 101–159. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Sanders, W. T, and Santley, R. S. 1983 A Tale of Three Cities: Energetics and Urbanization in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico. In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Vogt, E. Z. and Leventhal, R.M. pp. 243–291. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Scarry, C. M. 1986 Change in Plant Procurement and Production during the Emergence of the Moundville Chiefdom. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Schoolcraft, H. R. 1847 Notes on the Iroquois; Or Contributions of American History, Antiquities, and General Ethnology. Erastus H. Pease, Albany.Google Scholar
Schoolcraft, H. R. 1851 Historical and Statistical Information, Respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, Part I. Lippincott, Grambo, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Schoolcraft, H. R. 1853 Information Respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, Part III. Lippincott, Grambo, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Schoolcraft, H. R. 1854 Information Respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, Part TV. Lippincott, Grambo, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Schoolcraft, H. R. 1855 Information Respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, Part V. J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Schoolcraft, H. R. 1860 Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge, Volume 6. J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Smith, B. (translator) 1968 Narratives of Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of Florida. Palmetto Books, Gainesville, Florida.Google Scholar
Smith, B. D. 1985 Mississippian Patterns of Subsistence and Settlement. In Alabama and the Borderlands, edited by Badger, R. R. and Clayton, L.A. pp. 64–79. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Smith, B. D. 1987 The Economic Potential of Chenopodium berlandieri in Prehistoric Eastern North America. Ethnobiology 7: 29–54.Google Scholar
Smith, B. D. 1989 Origins of Agriculture in Eastern North America. Science 246: 1566–1571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steggerda, M. 1941 Maya Indians of Yucatan. Publication No. 531. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Strachey, W. 1953 [1612] The Historie of Travell into Virginia Britania. Hakluyt Society, London.Google Scholar
Sykes, C. M. 1980 Swidden Horticulture and Iroquoian Settlement. Archaeology of Eastern North America 8: 45–52.Google Scholar
Thomas, P. A. 1976 Contrastive Subsistence Strategies and Land Use as Factors for Understanding Indian-White Relations in New England. Ethnohistory 23: 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thwaites, R. G. (editor) 1888 Narrative of Andrew J. Vieau Sr. Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin 11: 218–237.Google Scholar
Thwaites, R. G. (editor) 1896-1901 The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents; Trav els and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791, vols. 15, 68, 69. Burrows Brothers, Cleveland.Google Scholar
Trigger, B. 1987 The Children ofAataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660. Reprinted. Originally published 1976. McGill- Queen's University Press, Montreal.Google Scholar
Turner, E. R. III 1976 An Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Study on the Evolution of Rank Societies in the Virginia Coastal Plain. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1900 Census of Agriculture. USDA, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1954 Corn: Acreage, Yield, and Production of All Corn, Corn for Grain, Corn for Silage, and Acreage for Forage, By States, 1866-1943. Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Agriculture-National Agricultural Statistics 1998 Crops County Data, <http://usda/mannlib.cornell.edu/data-sets/crops/< May 19. University of Illinois Agriculture Experiment Station (UI Agriculture Experiment Station)Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Agriculture-National Agricultural Statistics 1895 Corn Experiments, 1894. Bulletin 37: 1–24.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Agriculture-National Agricultural Statistics 1897 Experiments with Corn, 1896. Bulletin 46: 349–355.Google Scholar
van der Merwe, N. J., and Vogel, J. C. 1978 13C Content of Human Collagen as a Measure of Prehistoric Diet in Woodland North America. Nature 276: 815–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voegelin, E. W. 1941 The Place of Agriculture in the Subsistence Economy of the Shawnee. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science Arts and Letters 26: 513–520.Google Scholar
Wagner, G. E. 1987 Uses of Plants by the Fort Ancient Indians. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Waisberg, L. G., and Holzkamm, T. E. 1993 “A Tendency to Discourage Them from Cultivating“: Ojibwa Agriculture and Indian Affairs Administration in Northwestern Ontario. Ethnohistory 40: 175–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, P. D. 1991 Moundville's Economy. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Wien, T. 1990 “Les Travaux pressants“: Calendrier agricole, assolement et productivite au Canada aux XVIIe Siecle. Revue d'Histoire de I'Amerique Francaise 43: 535–558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Will, G.E, and Hyde, G.E. 1917 Corn among the Indians of the Upper Missouri. William Harvey Miner, St. Louis.Google Scholar
Williams, R. 1827 [1643] AKey into the Language of America, or A Help to the Language of the Natives in that Part of America Called New-England. Rhode Island Historical Society Collections 1: 17–163.Google Scholar
Willoughby, C. C. 1906 Houses and Gardens of the New England Indians. American Anthropologist 8: 115–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, G. 1987 Buffalo Bird Woman's Garden: Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians. Reprinted. Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul. Originally published 1917, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Wingard, J. D. 1992 The Role of Soils in the Development and Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization at Copdn, Honduras. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.Google Scholar
Witthoft, J. 1949 Green Corn Ceremonialism in the Eastern Woodlands. Occasional Contributions No. 13. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) 1985 Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of'a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series No. 724. World Health Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Zook, L. L. 1915 Tests of Com Varieties on the Great Plains. Bulletin No. 307. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. CrossRefGoogle Scholar