Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T06:55:18.712Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Formal Test of the Origin of Variation in North American Early Paleoindian Projectile Points

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Briggs Buchanan  and
Marcus J. Hamilton
Briggs Buchanan
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, 9635-8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada
Marcus J. Hamilton
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87131
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Recently it has been suggested that variation in the form of Early Paleoindian projectile points across North America was the result of drift rather than regional adaptation (Morrow and Morrow 1999). Here, we test this hypothesis quantitatively with matrix correlation statistics. Using a sample of Early Paleoindian point assemblages from across the continent we attempt to correlate variation in point shape with several measures of late Pleistocene period regional variation including net primary production, prey availability, prey selection, and prey body size. We find no significant correlations between point shape and measures of regional variation, suggesting that functional modifications to points within specific regional biomes were minimal. We do find evidence of spatial autocorrelation as the regional variation in point shape correlates positively with geographic distances among sites, a pattern consistent with recent, shared ancestry. Our findings provide support for the drift hypothesis posed by Morrow and Morrow (1999). We interpret these results as suggesting that despite the wide variation in regional environmental conditions across late Pleistocene period North America not enough time elapsed during the Early Paleoindian period for these local selective gradients to have led to significant changes in point shape.

Résumé

Résumé

Recientemente se ha sugerido que las variaciones encontradas en las puntas de proyectiles a lo largo de Norteamérica durante la etapa temprana del periodo Paleoindio fue el resultado de deriva, en lugar de la adaptación regional (Morrow y Morrow 1999). En este trabajo utilizamos matriz de correlación para poner a prueba esta hipótesis de una forma cuantitativa. Utilizando un conjunto de puntas de proyectiles que datan de la etapa temprana del periodo Paleoindio, que provienen de varias localidades del continente, entre la forma de los puntos correlaciones con indicadores de variación regional del Pleistoceno tardío. Dichos indicadores fueron la producción primaria neta, disponibilidad, selección y tamaño de las presas. No encontramos correlaciones significativas entre la forma de las puntas y las medidas de variación regional utilizadas. Esto sugiere que las modificaciones funcionales a las puntas dentro de biomas específicos fue mínima. Encontramos evidencia de autocorrelacion espacial, ya que la variación regional en la forma de las puntas se relaciona positivamente con la distancia geográfica entre sitios. Este es un patrón comúnmente derivado de una ancestría común. Nuestros descubrimientos apoyan la hipótesis postulada por Morrow y Morrow (1999). Con ello, se sugiere que a pesar de que existe una gran variación en las condiciones ecológicas locales en toda la etapa del Pleistoceno tardío de Norteamérica, el lapso de tiempo trascurrido hasta el Paleoindio temprano, no fue el suficiente como para que estos gradientes selectivos, ocasionaran cambios en la forma de las puntas de los proyectiles.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 74 , Issue 2 , April 2009 , pp. 279 - 298
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adams, J. M., and Faure, H. (editors) 1997 Review and Atlas of Palaeovegetation: Preliminary Land Ecosystem Maps of the World Since the Last Glacial Maximum. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee. Electronic document, http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/adamsl.html, accessed February 18, 2009.Google Scholar
Albrecht, Gene H. 1978 Some Comments on the Use of Ratios. Systematic Zoology 27:67–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, A. D., and Tiffany, Joseph A. 1972 Rummells-Maske: A Clovis Find Spot in Iowa. Plains Anthropologist 17:55–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, David G., and Faught, Michael K. 2000 Palaeoindian Artefact Distributions Evidence and Implications. Antiquity 74:507–513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, M. J., and Legendre, Pierre 1999 An Empirical Comparison of Permutation Methods for Tests of Partial Regression Coefficients in a Linear Model. Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation 62:271–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atchley, William R., Gaskins, Charles T., and Anderson, Dwane 1976 Statistical Properties of Ratios. I. Empirical Results. Systematic Zoology 25:137–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Robert C., and Byrnes, Janice 1990 A New, Old Method for Assessing Measurement Error in Both Univariate and Multivariate Morphometric Studies. Systematic Zoology 39:124–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bamforth, Douglas B. 1991 Flintknapping Skill, Communal Hunting, and Paleoindian Projectile Point Typology. Plains Anthropologist 36:309–322.Google Scholar
Barton, C. Michael, Schmich, Steven, and James, Steven R. 2004 The Ecology of Human Colonization in Pristine Landscapes. In The Settlement of the American Continents: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography, edited by C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David R. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson, pp. 138–161. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Beal, Kathleen G., and Khamis, Harry J. 1991 A Problem in Statistical Analysis: Simultaneous Inference. Condor 93:1023–1025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, Charlotte, and Jones, George T. 1997 The Terminal Pleistocene/Early Holocene Archaeology of the Great Basin. Journal of World Prehistory 11:161–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L., and Eerkens, Jelmer W. 1999 Point Typologies, Cultural Transmission, and the Spread of Bow-and-Arrow Technology in the Prehistoric Great Basin. American Antiquity 64:231–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boldurian, Anthony T, and Cotter, John L. 1999 Clovis Revisited. New Perspectives on Paleoindian Adaptations from Blackwater Draw, New Mexico. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnet, Eric, and Peer, Yves Van de 2002 Zt: A Software Tool for Simple and Partial Mantel Tests. Journal of Statistical Software 7:1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bookstein, Fred L., Chernoff, Barry, Elder, Ruth L., Humphries, Julian M. Jr., Smith, Gerald R., and Strauss, Richard E. 1985 Morphometries in Evolutionary Biology. Special Publication No. 15. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Boyd, Robert, and Richerson, Peter J. 1985 Culture and the Evolutionary Process. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Bryan, Alan L. 1991 The Fluted-Point Tradition in the Americas-One of Several Adaptations to Late Pleistocene American Environments. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turnmire, pp. 15–33. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Oregon State University, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Brunswig, Robert H. Jr., and Fisher, Daniel C. 1993 Research on the Dent Mammoth Site. Current Research in the Pleistocene 10:63–65.Google Scholar
Buchanan, Briggs 2005 Cultural Transmission and Stone Tools: A Study of Early Paleoindian Technology in North America. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Buchanan, Briggs 2006 An Analysis of Folsom Projectile Point Resharpening Using Quantitative Comparisons of Form and Allometry. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:185–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchanan, Briggs, and Collard, Mark 2007 Investigating the Peopling of North America through Cladistic Analyses of Early Paleoindian Projectile Points. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 26:366–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, B. Robert 1963 An Early Man Site at Big Camas Prairie, South-Central Idaho. Tebiwa 6:22–33.Google Scholar
Butler, B. Robert, and Fitzwater, R. J. 1965 A Further Note on the Clovis Site at Big Camas Prairie. South-Central Idaho. Tebiwa 8:38–39.Google Scholar
Byers, Douglas S. 1954 Bull Brook-A Fluted Point Site in Ipswich, Massachusetts. American Antiquity 19:343–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byers, Douglas S. 1955 Additional Information on the Bull Brook Site, Massachusetts. American Antiquity 20:274–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cannon, Michael D. 2004 Geographic Variability in North American Mammal Community Richness During the Terminal Pleistocene. Quaternary Science Reviews 23:1099–1123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cannon, Michael D., and Meltzer, David J 2004 Early Paleoindian Foraging: Examining the Faunal Evidence for Large Mammal Specialization and Regional Variability in Prey Choice. Quaternary Science Reviews 23:1955–1987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castellano, Sergio, and Balletto, Emilio 2002 Is the Partial Mantel Test Inadequate? Evolution 56:1871–1873.Google ScholarPubMed
Cheshier, Joseph, and Kelly, Robert L. 2006 Projectile Point Shape and Durability: The Effect of Thickness: Length. American Antiquity 71:353–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Michael B. 1999 Clovis and Folsom Lithic Technology On and Near the Southern Plains: Similar Ends, Different Means. In Folsom Lithic Technology: Explorations in Structure and Variation, edited by Daniel S. Amick, pp. 12–38. International Monographs in Prehistory, Archaeological Series No. 12. Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Collins, Michael B., Hester, Thomas R., and Headrick, P. J. 1992 Engraved Cobbles from the Gault Site, Central Texas. Current Research in the Pleistocene 9:3–4.Google Scholar
Collins, Michael B., and Lohse, Jon C. 2004 The Nature of Clovis Blades and Blade Cores. In Entering America: Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last Glacial Maximum, edited by David B. Madsen, pp. 159–183. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Cotter, John L. 1937 The Occurrence of Hints and Extinct Animals in Pluvial Deposits Near Clovis, New Mexico. Part IV: Report on Excavation at the Gravel Pit, 1936. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 89:1–16.Google Scholar
Cotter, John L. 1938 The Occurrence of Flints and Extinct Animals in Pluvial Deposits Near Clovis, New Mexico. Part VI: Report on Field Season of 1937. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 90:113–117.Google Scholar
Cox, Steven L. 1986 A Re-Analysis of the Shoop Site. Archaeology of Eastern North America 14:101–170.Google Scholar
Curran, Mary Lou 1984 The Whipple Site and Paleoindian Tool Assemblage Variation: A Comparison of Intrasite Structuring. Archaeology of Eastern North America 12:5–40.Google Scholar
Curran, Mary Lou 1987 The Spatial Organization of Paleoindian Populations in the Late Pleistocene of the Northeast. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.Google Scholar
Curran, Mary Lou 1994 New Hampshire Paleo-Indian Research and the Whipple Site. The New Hampshire Archeologist 33–34:29–52.Google Scholar
Damuth, John, and MacFadden, Bruce J. 1990 Body Size in Mammalian Paleobiology: Estimation and Biological. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
dos Reis, Sérgio F., Pessôa, Leila M., and Strauss, Richard E. 1990 Application of Size-Free Canonical Discriminant Analysis to Studies of Geographic Differentiation. Brazilian Journal of Genetics 13:509–520.Google Scholar
Ellis, Christopher 2004 Understanding “Clovis” Fluted Point Variability in the Northeast: A Perspective from the Debert Site, Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 28:205–253.Google Scholar
FAUNMAP Working Group 1994 FAUNMAP: A Database Documenting Late Quaternary Distributions of Mammal Species in the United States. Illinois State Museum Scientific Papers 25. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Fiedel, Stuart J. 1999 Older Than We Thought: Implications of Corrected Dates for Paleoindians. American Antiquity 64:95–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figgins, Jesse D. 1933 A Further Contribution to the Antiquity of Man in America. Proceedings of the Colorado Museum of Natural History 12:4–10.Google Scholar
Frampton, C. M., and Ward, J. M. 1990 The Use of Ratio Variables in Systematics. Taxon 39:586–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frison, George C. 1986 Mammoth Hunting and Butchering from a Perspective of African Elephant Culling. In The Colby Mammoth Site: Taphonomy and Archaeology of a Clovis Kill in Northern Wyoming, edited by George C. Frison and Lawrence Todd, pp. 115–134. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Frison, George C. 1989 Experimental Use of Clovis Weaponry and Tools on African Elephants. American Antiquity 54:766–784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frison, George C. 1991 The Clovis Cultural Complex: New Data from Caches of Flaked Stone and Worked Bone Artifacts. In Raw Material Economies among Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers, edited by Anta Montet-White and Steven Holen, pp. 321–333. University of Kansas Publications in Anthropology No. 19. Lawrence.Google Scholar
Frison, George C., and Bradley, Bruce A. 1999 The Fenn Cache: Clovis Weapons and Tools. One Horse Land and Cattle Company, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Frison, George C., and Todd, Lawrence C. 1986 The Colby Mammoth Site: Taphonomy and Archaeology of a Clovis Kill in Northern Wyoming. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Gardner, William M. 1983 Stop Me if You’ve Heard This One Before: The Flint Run Paleoindian Complex Revisited. Archaeology of Eastern North America 11:49–64.Google Scholar
Gardner, William M., and Verrey, Robert A. 1979 Typology and Chronology of Fluted Points from the Flint Run Area. Pennsylvania Archaeologist 49:13–46.Google Scholar
Graham, Russell W., Vance Haynes, C. Jr., Johnson, Donald Lee, and Kay, Marvin 1981 Kimmswick: A Clovis-Mastodon Association in Eastern Missouri. Science 213:1115–1117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, Russell W., and Kay, Marvin 1988 Taphonomic Comparisons of Cultural and Noncultural Faunal Deposits at the Kimmswick and Barnhart Sites, Jefferson County, Missouri. In Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Paleoecology and Archaeology of the Eastem Great Lakes Region, edited by Richard S. Laub, Norton G. Miller, and David W. Steadman, pp. 227–240. Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences No. 33. Buffalo, New York.Google Scholar
Gramly, Richard Michael 1982 The Vail Site: A Paleo-Indian Encampment in Maine. Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences No. 30. Buffalo, New York.Google Scholar
Gramly, Richard Michael 1984 Kill Sites, Killing Ground, and Fluted Points at the Vail Site. Archaeology of Eastern North America 12:101–121.Google Scholar
Gramly, Richard Michael 1993 The Richey Clovis Cache: Earliest Americans Along the Columbia River. Persimmon Press, Buffalo, New York.Google Scholar
Gramly, Richard Michael 1999 The Lamb Site: A Pioneering Clovis Encampment. Persimmon Press, Buffalo, New York.Google Scholar
Gramly, Richard Michael, and Rutledge, Kerry 1981 A New Paleo-Indian Site in the State of Maine. American Antiquity 46:354–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimes, John R. 1979 A New Look at Bull Brook. An Aropotogy 3:109–130.Google Scholar
Grimes, John R., Eldridge, William, Grimes, Beth G., Vaccaro, Antonio, Vaccaro, Frank, Vaccaro, Joseph, Vaccaro, Nicolas, and Orsini, Antonio 1984 Bull Brook II. Archaeology of Eastern North America 12:159–183.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Marcus J., and Buchanan, Briggs 2007 Spatial Gradients in Clovis-Age Radiocarbon Dates Across North America Suggest Rapid Colonization from the North. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:15625–15630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haury, Emil W. 1953 Artifacts With Mammoth Remains, Naco, Arizona. American Antiquity 19:1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haury, Emil W., Sayles, E. B., and Wasley, William W. 1959 The Lehner Mammoth Site, Southeastern Arizona. American Antiquity 25:2–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, C. Vance Jr. 1964 Fluted Projectile Points: Their Age and Dispersion. Science 145:1408–1413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, C. Vance Jr., and Thomas Hemmings, E. 1968 Mammoth-Bone Shaft Wrench from Murray Springs, Arizona. Science 159:186–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, C. Vance Jr., and Huckell, Bruce B. (editors) 2007 Murray Springs: A Clovis Site with Multiple Activity Areas in the San Pedro Valley, Arizona. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 71. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. Vance Jr., McFaul, Michael, Brunswig, Robert H., and Hopkins, Kenneth D. 1998 Kersey-Kuner Terrace Investigations at the Dent and Bernhardt Sites, Colorado. Geoarchaeology 13:201–218.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazelwood, Lee, and Steele, James 2004 Spatial Dynamics of Human Dispersals Constraints on Modeling and Archaeological Validation. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:669–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemmings, E. Thomas 1970 Early Man in the San Pedro Valley, Arizona. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Henrich, Joseph 2004 Demography and Cultural Evolution: Why Adaptive Cultural Processes Produced Maladaptive Losses in Tasmania. American Antiquity 69:197–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, James J. 1972 Blackwater Draw Locality No. 1: A Stratified Early Man Site in Eastern New Mexico. Fort Burgwin Research Center Publication No. 8. Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Hester, Thomas R., Collins, Michael B., and Headrick, P. J. 1992 Notes on South Texas Archaeology: 1992–4, Paleo-Indian Engraved Stones from the Gault Site. La Tierra 19:3–5.Google Scholar
Hofman, Jack L. 1991 Folsom Land Use: Projectile Point Variability as a Key to Mobility. In Raw Material Economies Among Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers, edited by Anta Montet-White and Steven Holen, pp. 335–355. Publications in Anthropology 19. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Hofman, Jack L. 1992 Recognition and Interpretation of Folsom Technological Variability on the Southern Plains. In Ice Age Hunters of the Rockies, edited by Dennis J. Stanford and Jane S. Day, pp. 193–224. University Press of Colorado, Niwot.Google Scholar
Holliday, Vance T., Vance Haynes, C. Jr., Hofman, Jack L., and Meltzer, David J. 1994 Geoarchaeology and Geochronology of the Miami (Clovis) Site, Southern High Plains of Texas. Quaternary Research 41:234–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howard, E. B. 1935 Occurrence of Flints and Extinct Animals in Pluvial Deposits near Clovis, New Mexico. Part I: Introduction. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 87:299–303.Google Scholar
Humphries, J. M., Bookstein, F. L., Chernoff, B., Smith, G. R., Elder, R. L., and Poss, S. G. 1981 Multivariate Discrimination by Shape in Relation to Size. Systematic Zoology 30:291–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, Charles B. 1967 Physiography of the United States. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Hutchings, W. Karl 1997 The Paleoindian Fluted Point: Dart or Spear Armature? The Identification of Paleoindian Delivery Technology Through the Analysis of Lithic Fracture Velocity. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia.Google Scholar
Jackson, D. A., and Somers, Keith M. 1989 Are Probability Estimates from the Permutation Model of Mantel's Test Stable? Canadian Journal of Zoology 67:766–769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jolicoeur, Pierre 1963 The Multivariate Generalization of the Allometry Equation. Biometrics 19:497–499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jolicoeur, Pierre, and Mosimann, James E. 1960 Size and Shape Variation in the Painted Turtle. A Principal Component Analysis. Growth 24:339–354.Google Scholar
Jones, Scott, and Bonnichsen, Robson 1994 The Anzick Clovis Burial. Current Research in the Pleistocene 11:42–43.Google Scholar
Keeley, Lawrence H. 1982 Hafting and Retooling: Effects on the Archaeological Record. American Antiquity 47:798–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keene, Oliver N. 1995 The Log Transform is Special. Statistics in Medicine 14:811–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, Robert L., and Todd, Lawrence C. 1988 Coming into the Country: Early Paleo-Indian Hunting and Mobility. American Antiquity 53:231–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilby, J. David, and Huckell, Bruce B. 2003 A Comparison of Caches: An Initial Look at Regional Variation in Clovis Caching. Paper presented at the 68th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Koenig, Walter D. 1999 Spatial Autocorrelation of Ecological Phenomena. Trends in Evolution and Ecology 14:22–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahren, Larry, and Bonnichsen, Robson 1974 Bone Foreshafts from a Clovis Burial in Southwestern Montana. Science 186:147–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Legendre, Pierre 2000 Comparison of Permutation Methods for the Partial Correlation and Partial Mantel Tests. Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation 67:37–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Legendre, Pierre, and Legendre, Louis 1998 Numerical Ecology. 2nd ed. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Leonhardy, Frank C. (editor) 1966 Domebo: A Paleo-Indian Mammoth Kill in the Prairie-Plains. Contributions of the Museum of the Great Plains No. 1. Lawton, Oklahoma.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee, O’Brien, Michael J., and Hayes, Virgil 1998 A Mechanical and Functional Study of Bone Rods from the Richey-Roberts Clovis Cache, Washington, U.S.A. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:887–906.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, George F. 1966 The Technology and Settlement Pattern of a Paleo-Indian Site at Debert, Nova Scotia. Quaternaria 8:59–74.Google Scholar
MacDonald, George F. 1968 Debert: A Palaeo-Indian Site in Central Nova Scotia. Anthropology Papers No. 16. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Manly, Bryan F J. 1994 Multivariate Statistical Methods. A Primer. 2nd ed. Chapman and Hall, London.Google Scholar
Mantel, Nathan 1967 The Detection of Disease Clustering and a Generalized Regression Approach. Cancer Research 27:209–220.Google Scholar
Mantel, Nathan, and Valand, Ranchhodbhai S. 1970 A Technique of Nonparametric Multivariate Analysis. Biometrics 26:547–558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAvoy, Joseph M., and McAvoy, Lynn D. 1997 Archaeological Investigations of Site 44SX202, Cactus Hill, Sussex County Virginia. Virginia Department of Historic Resources Research Report Series No. 8. Department of Historic Resources, Commonwealth of Virginia, Richmond.Google Scholar
Melillo, Jerry M., David McGuire, A., Kicklighter, David W., Moore, Berrien III, Vorosmarty, Charles J., and Schloss, Annette L. 1993 Global Climate Change and Terrestrial Net Primary Production. Nature 363:234–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 1988 Late Pleistocene Human Adaptations in Eastern North America. Journal of World Prehistory 2:1–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 1993 Is There a Clovis Adaptation? In From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic-Paleo-Indian Adaptations, edited by Olga Softer and N. D. Praslov, pp. 293–310. Plenum Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 2004 Modeling the Initial Colonization of the Americas: Issues of Scale, Demography, and Landscape Learning. In The Settlement of the American Continents: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography, edited by C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David R. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson, pp. 123–137. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Morrow, Juliet E., and Morrow, Toby A. 1999 Geographic Variation in Fluted Projectile Points: A Hemispheric Perspective. American Antiquity 64:215–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrow, Juliet E., and Morrow, Toby A. 2002 Rummells-Maske Revisited: A Fluted Point Cache from East Central Iowa. Plains Anthropologist 47:307–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Musil, Robert R. 1988 Functional Efficiency and Technological Change: A Hafting Tradition Model for Prehistoric America. In Early Human Occupation in Far Western North America: The Clovis-Archaic Interface, edited by Judith A. Willig, C. Mejvin Aikens, and John L. Fagan, pp. 373–387. Anthropological Papers No. 21. Nevada State Museum, Carson City, Nevada.Google Scholar
Neiman, Fraser D. 1995 Stylistic Variation in Evolutionary Perspective: Inferences from Decorative Diversity and Interassemblage Distance in Illinois Woodland Ceramic Assemblages. American Antiquity 60:7–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Brien, Michael J., Darwent, John, and Lee Lyman, R. 2001 Cladistics is Useful for Reconstructing Archaeological Phylogenies: Palaeoindian Points from the Southeastern United States. Journal of Archaeological Science 28:1115–1136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owsley, Douglas W, and Hunt, David R. 2001 Clovis and Early Archaic Period Crania from the Anz-ick Site (24PA506), Park County, Montana. Plains Anthropologist 46:115–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, Raymond B. 1983 Shape Characters in Numerical Taxonomy and the Problems with Ratios. Taxon 32:535–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raufaste, Nathalie, and Rousset, François 2001 Are the Partial Mantel Tests Adequate? Evolution 55:1703–1705.Google ScholarPubMed
Rickleffs, Robert E., and Miller, Gary L. 1999 Ecology. 4th ed. W. H. Freeman, New York.Google Scholar
Rohlf, F. James 2004 tpsDIG, Digitize Landmarks and Outlines, Version 2.0. Department of Ecology and Evolution, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Electronic document, http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/morph/index.html, accessed February 18, 2009.Google Scholar
Rousset, François 2002 Partial Mantel Tests: Reply to Castellano and Balletto. Evolution 56:1874–1875.Google Scholar
Sellards, E. H. 1938 Artifacts Associated with Fossil Elephant. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 49:999–1010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sellards, E. H. 1952 Early Man in North America. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Shennan, Stephen J. 2000 Population, Culture History and the Dynamics of Culture Change. Current Anthropology 41:811–835.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, Stephen J. 2001 Demography and Cultural Innovation: A Model and Some Implications for the Emergence of Modern Human Culture. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 11:5–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, Stephen J., and Wilkinson, I. R. 2001 Ceramic Style Change and Neutral Evolution: A Case Study from Neolithic Europe. American Antiquity 66:577–593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, Donald B. 1997 The Gainey and Butler Sites as Focal Points for Caribou and People. In Caribou and Reindeer Hunters of the Northern Hemisphere, edited by Lawrence J. Jackson and Paul T. Thacker, pp. 105–131. Avebury, Aldershot.Google Scholar
Simons, Donald B., Shott, Michael J., and Wright, Henry T. 1984 The Gainey Site: Variability in Great Lakes Paleo-Indian Assemblage. Archaeology of Eastern North America 12:266–279.Google Scholar
Simons, Donald B., Shott, Michael J., and Wright, Henry T. 1987 Paleoindian Research in Michigan: Current Status of the Gainey and Leavitt Projects. Current Research in the Pleistocene 4:27–30.Google Scholar
Smith, Felisa A., Kathleen Lyons, S., Morgan Ernest, S. K., Jones, Kate E., Kauffman, Dawn M., Dayan, Tamar, Marquet, Pablo A., Brown, James H., and Haskell, John P. 2003 Body Mass of Late Quaternary Mammals. Ecology 84:3403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sneath, Peter H. A., and Sokal, Robert R. 1973 Numerical Taxonomy. W. H. Freeman, SanFrancisco.Google Scholar
Sokal, Robert R., and James Rohlf, F. 1995 Biometry. 3rd ed. W. H. Freeman, New York.Google Scholar
Somers, Keith M. 1986 Multivariate Allometry and Removal of Size With Principal Components Analysis. Systematic Zoology 35:359–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somers, Keith M. 1989 Allometry, Isometry and Shape in Principal Components Analysis. Systematic Zoology 38:169–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanford, Dennis J., and Jodry, Margaret A. 1988 The Drake Clovis Cache. Current Research in the Pleistocene 5:21–22.Google Scholar
Steele, James, Adams, Jonathan, and Sluckin, Tim 1998 Modelling Paleoindian Dispersals. World Archaeology 30:286–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strauss, Richard E. 1985 Evolutionary Allometry and Variation in Body Form in the South American Catfish Genus Corydoras (Callichthyidae). Systematic Zoology 34:381–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strauss, Richard E., Atanassov, Momchil N., and Oliveira, João Alves de 2003 Evaluation of the Principal-Component and Expectation-Maximization Methods for Estimating Missing Data in Morphometric Studies. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 23:284–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankersley, Kenneth B. 1994 The Effects of Stone and Technology on Fluted-Point Morphometry. American Antiquity 59:498–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, Robert S., Whitlock, Cathy, Bartlein, Patrick J., Harrison, Sandy P., and Geoffrey Spaulding, W. 1993 Climatic Changes in the Western United States Since 18,000 yr B.P. In Global Climates Since the Last Glacial Maximum, edited by H. E. Wright, Jr., John E. Kutzbach, Thompson Webb, III, William F. Ruddiman, F. Alayne Street-Perrott, and Patrick J. Bartlein, pp. 468–513. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Titmus, Gene L., and Woods, James C. 1991 Fluted Points from the Snake River Plain. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turnmire, pp. 119–131. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Oregon State University, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Warnica, James M. 1966 New Discoveries at the Clovis Site. American Antiquity 31:345–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, Thompson III, Bartlein, Patrick J., Harrison, Sandy P., and Anderson, Katherine H. 1993 Vegetation, Lake Levels, and Climate in Eastern North America for the Past 18,000 Years. In Global Climates Since the Last Glacial Maximum, edited by H. E. Wright, Jr., John E. Kutzbach, Thompson Webb, III, William F. Ruddiman, F. Alayne Street-Perrott, and Patrick J. Bartlein, pp. 415–467. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Wilke, Philip J., Jeffrey Flenniken, J., and Ozbun, Terry L. 1991 Clovis Technology at the Anzick Site, Montana. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 13:242–272.Google Scholar
Willig, Judith A. 1991 Clovis Technology and Adaptation in Far Western North America: Regional Pattern and Environmental Context. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turnmire, pp. 91–118. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Oregon State University, Corvallis.Google Scholar
Witthoft, John 1952 A Paleo-Indian Site in Eastern Pennsylvania: An Early Hunting Culture. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96:464–495.Google Scholar
Witthoft, John 1954 A Note on Fluted Point Relationships. American Antiquity 19:271–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woods, James C., and Titmus, Gene L. 1985 A Review of the Simon Clovis Collection. Idaho Archaeologist 8:3–8.Google Scholar
Yezerinac, Stephen M., Lougheed, Stephen C., and Hand-ford, Paul 1992 Measurement Error and Morphometric Studies: Statistical Power and Observer Experience. Systematic Biology 41:471–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar