As middle-class women enter retirement, through giving up a job or losing a spouse or dependent relative, they adopt different friendship strategies. Some extend and deepen existing relationships; some make new friends; some develop the role of ‘good neighbour’; some grow closer to siblings. One of the most popular ways of making friends is to join a voluntary association, but this strategy is not always successful. Between them, friends provide a variety of services, supports and company. Old friends contribute something unique to the acceptance of ageing and adjustment to changing circumstances. Middle-class friendships have a hedonistic quality which matches the lifestyle of middle-class women in retirement.

A notable feature of most recent policy statements regarding care of the elderly is a reference to the costs of care. Public expenditure cuts at a time when the numbers of old people, and dependent old people, are increasing have heightened the already growing concern about the resources needed for providing care. This paper has two basic aims. The subsidiary aim is to examine this growing concern, with particular reference to the British experience since 1948 and with an especial focus on residential care services. This examination provides an historical and contextual basis for the discussion which is the principle aim of the paper. This aim is to explain how information on costs which is currently available to the policy maker and care provider can be gainfully employed in the planning of care services for the elderly. Again, attention is mainly focussed on residential care, but the approach has more general relevance. The starting point for this discussion is an examination of why costs vary – either between homes or between areas or between providers. A fairly comprehensive review of previous costs studies in this area is provided.

It is currently the vogue to speak of development throughout life. It is here argued that epigenetic models of human development are unsuited to explaining psycho-social change in old age. An alternative model of the emergence of psycho-social change in old age is proposed. An indication is given of why such change should occur, and the argument is illustrated with two catastrophe models of change, one hypothetical, and another describing events in the life of the composer Sibelius. These models indicate how role loss and modernization could have a causal role in psycho-social change. It is then argued that under prevailing social conditions emergent change could take the form of an ‘inner journey’ in old age. It is concluded that it is time to re-assess the use of developmental models of change in old age.

An exploratory study examines the knowledge of old people, their past and present teaching-learning experiences with children, and their readiness to teach children in the future. The respondents to structured-interviews are 76 old people from three cultural groups in Israel: Europeans, Yemenite-Tunisians and Christian-Arabs. Old people have many kinds of knowledge: occupational skills; formal, general and religious knowledge; personal experience and traditions of the ethnic group. Old people who perceive of themselves as knowledgeable and competent, who have frequent contacts with school-age children (particularly their own grandchildren), who reside in communities that support the social norm of communication between the generations, have had positive experiences teaching children and are prepared to teach children in the future. Old people who teach children, integrate then- past experiences, enhance their self-esteem and provide alternative behavioural models to children.