Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T06:51:14.144Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Structural marginalisation among the long-term care workforce in England: evidence from mixed-effect models of national pay data

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 August 2012

SHEREEN HUSSEIN  and
JILL MANTHORPE
SHEREEN HUSSEIN*
Affiliation:
Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London, UK.
JILL MANTHORPE
Affiliation:
Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London, UK.
*
Address for correspondence: Shereen Hussein, Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London, Melbourne House, 5th Floor, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The long-term care sector is generally characterised by low pay and difficult working conditions. Understanding pay structures and differentials within this sector is important in enhancing recruitment, retention, quality of care and productivity. This article uses new national data on the long-term care workforce in England to investigate employer and individual effects on pay levels and differentials, using mixed-effects modelling controlling for region, sector and employer hierarchical factors. We further examine whether gender and ethnic pay gaps exist among different groups of workers. The results indicate a significant relationship between sector and pay across different job roles. The analysis further identifies ethnic and gender pay differences even after controlling for the effects of sector and individual employers. The implications of this are discussed in relation to sustaining the care workforce in the context of an ageing society and the potential for structural employment marginalisation to reflect the marginalisation of older people receiving care.

Keywords

pay differentialslong-term carenational data setmixed-effect modelshierarchical modellingeconomic marginalisation
Type
Articles
Information
Ageing & Society , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , January 2014 , pp. 21 - 41
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Akaike, H. 1974. Information theory and an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In Petrov, B. N. and Csáki, F. (eds), Second International Symposium on Information Theory. Akadémiai Kiado, Budapest, 267–81.Google Scholar
Anderson, N. and Hughes, D. 2010. The business of caring: women's self-employment and the marketization of care. Gender Work and Organization, 17, 4, 381–405.Google Scholar
Boorman, S. 2009. NHS Health and Well Being. Final Report. Available online at http://www.nhshealthandwellbeing.org/pdfs/NHS%20Staff%20H&WB%20Review%20Final%20Report%20VFinal%2020-11-09.pdf.Google Scholar
Charlesworth, S. and Marshall, H. 2011. Sacrificing workers: the curious cases of salary sacrificing in non-profit community services in Australia. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 24, 7, 673–83.Google Scholar
Datta, K., McIlwaine, C., Evans, Y., Herbert, J., May, J. and Wills, J. 2007. Work, Care and Life Among Low-paid Migrant Workers in London: Towards a Migrant Ethic of Care. Queen Mary, University of London, London.Google Scholar
Department of Health 2010. A Vision for Adult Social Care: Capable Communities and Active Citizens. Available online at http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_121508.Google Scholar
Dilnot Commission 2011. Fairer Care Funding. Department of Health, London. Available online at http://www.dilnotcommission.dh.gov.uk/2011/07/04/commission-report/.Google Scholar
Disney, R. and Gosling, A. 2008. Changing Public Sector Wage Differentials in the UK. IFS Working Paper No. W08/02, Institute for Fiscal Studies. Available online at http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/ifsifsewp/08_2F02.htm.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
England, P. 2005. Emerging theories of care work. Annual Review of Sociology, 31, 1, 381–99.Google Scholar
England, P., Allison, P. and Wu, Y. 2007. Does bad pay cause occupations to feminize, Does feminization reduce pay, and How can we tell with longitudinal data? Social Science Research, 36, 1237–56.Google Scholar
England, P. and Folbre, N. 2003. Contracting for care. In Nelson, J. and Ferber, M. (eds), Feminist Economics Today. Chicago University Press, Chicago, 61–80.Google Scholar
Folbre, N. 2001. The Invisible Heart: Economics and Family Values. The New Press, New York.Google Scholar
Grimshaw, D. and Rubery, J. 2007. Undervaluing women's work. EOC Working Paper Series No. 53, Equal Opportunities Commission, Manchester, UK.Google Scholar
Himmelweit, S. and Hilary, L. 2008. Reducing Gender Inequalities to Create a Sustainable Care System. Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York, UK.Google Scholar
Howe, A. 2009. Migrant care workers or migrants working in long-term care? A review of Australian experience. Journal of Ageing & Social Policy, 21, 4, 374–92.Google Scholar
Hughes, J., Chester, H. and Challis, D. 2009. Recruitment and Retention of a Social Care Workforce for Older People. Discussion Paper M193-2, Personal Social Services Research Unit, UK. Available online at http://www.medicine.manchester.ac.uk/pssru/research/ServiceArrangementsandIntegration/SocialCareWorkforce/DPM1932.pdf.Google Scholar
Hussein, S. 2009. Social care workforce profile: age, gender and ethnicity. Social Care Workforce Periodical, Issue 2, September. Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London.Google Scholar
Hussein, S. 2010 a. Pay in the adult social care in England. Social Care Workforce Periodical, Issue 6, May. Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London.Google Scholar
Hussein, S. 2010 b. Modelling pay in adult care using linear mixed-effects models. Social Care Workforce Periodical, Issue 7, June. Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London.Google Scholar
Hussein, S. 2011 a. Estimating probabilities and numbers of direct care workers paid under the National Minimum Wage in the UK: a Bayesian approach. Social Care Workforce Periodical, Issue 16, December. Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London.Google Scholar
Hussein, S. 2011 b. British Black and Minority Ethnic groups’ participation in the care sector. Social Care Workforce Periodical, Issue 15, November. Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London.Google Scholar
Hussein, S. 2011 c. Men in the English care sector. Social Care Workforce Periodical, Issue 14, September. Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London.Google Scholar
Hussein, S., Stevens, M. and Manthorpe, J. 2010. International Social Care Workers in England: Profile, Motivations, Experiences and Future Expectations, February. Final Report to the Department of Health, Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London. Available online at http://www.kcl.ac.uk/content/1/c6/03/89/16/Husseinetal2010International-FinalReport.pdf.Google Scholar
Idson, T. and Oi, W. 1999. Firm size and wages. In Ashenfelter, O. and Card, D. (eds), Handbook of Labor Economics. Volume 3B, Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2165–214.Google Scholar
Innes, A. 2009. Dementia Studies. Sage, London.Google Scholar
Laird, N. M. and Ware, J. H. 1982. Random-effects models for longitudinal data. Biometrics, 38, 4, 963–74.Google Scholar
Lallemand, T., Plasman, R. and Rycx, F. 2007. The establishment-size wage premium: evidence from European countries. Empirica, 34, 5, 427–51.Google Scholar
Low Pay Commission 2010. National Minimum Wage, 2010 Report. Available online at http://www.lowpay.gov.uk/lowpay/report/pdf/LPC_Report_2010.PDF.Google Scholar
Lucifora, C. and Meurs, D. 2004. The public sector pay gap in France, Great Britain, and Italy. Working Paper, Centre for Household, Income, Labour and Demographic Economics (CHILD), Turin, Italy.Google Scholar
Maben, J. 2010. The feelgood factor: evidence for a link between staff wellbeing and the quality of patient care. Nursing Standard, 24, 30, 70–1.Google Scholar
Machin, S. and Wilson, J. 2004. Minimum wages in a low-wage labour market: care homes in the UK. Economic Journal, 114, 496, C102–9.Google Scholar
Manning, A. and Petrongolo, B. 2005. The part-time pay penalty. CEP Discussion Paper No. 679, LSE and Women and Equality Unit, London.Google Scholar
Melly, B. 2005. Public–private sector wage differentials in Germany: evidence from quantile regression. Empirical Economics, 30, 2, 505–20.Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics 2012. Labour Market Statistics May 2012. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/lms/labour-market-statistics/may-2012/statistical-bulletin.html [Accessed 19 July 2012].Google Scholar
Olivetti, C. and Petrongolo, B. 2006. Unequal pay or unequal employment? A cross-country analysis of gender gaps. IZA Discussion Paper 1941, Institute for the Study of Labor, Bonn, Germany.Google Scholar
Palmer, E. and Eveline, J. 2010. Sustaining low pay in aged care work. Gender, Work and Organization. Published online, doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2010.00512.x [Accessed 10 December 2011].Google Scholar
Perales, F. 2010. Occupational Feminization, Specialized Human Capital and Wages: Evidence from the British Labour Market. Available online at http://www.iser.essex.ac.uk/publications/working-papers/iser/2010-31.pdf [Accessed 25 March 2012].Google Scholar
Pinheiro, J. C. and Bates, D. M. 2000. Mixed-effects Models in S and S-PLUS. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Pinheiro, J., Bates, D., DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D. and the R Development Core Team 2011. nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models. R Package Version 3.1-101. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
R Development Core Team 2007. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna.Google Scholar
Rubery, J., Hebson, G., Grimshaw, D., Carroll, M., Smith, L., Marchington, L. and Ugarte, S. 2011. The Recruitment and Retention of a Care Workforce for Older People. University of Manchester, Manchester.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. 1978. Estimating the dimensions of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 2, 461–4.Google Scholar
Simon, A., Owen, C., Moss, C., Petrie, P., Cameron, C., Potts, P. and Wigfall, V. 2007. Working Together Volume 1. Secondary Analysis of the Labour Force Survey to Map the Numbers and Characteristics of the Occupations Working Within Social Care, Childcare, Nursing and Education. Thomas Coram Research Unit, London.Google Scholar
Skills for Care 2011 a. The Size and Structure of the Adult Social Care Sector and Workforce in England 2011. Skills for Care, Leeds, UK. http://www.skillsforcare.org.uk/research/research_reports/size_and_structure_2011.aspx.Google Scholar
Skills for Care 2011 b. Capable, Confident, Skilled: A Workforce Development Strategy for People Working, Supporting and Caring in Adult Social Care. Skills for Care, Leeds, UK.Google Scholar
Smith, R. 1979. Compensating wage differentials and public policy: a review. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 32, 3, 339–52.Google Scholar
Timonen, V. and Doyle, M. 2007. Worlds apart? Public, private and non-profit providers of domiciliary care for older people in Ireland. Journal of Aging Studies, 21, 3, 255–65.Google Scholar
Wanless, D. and Fernandez, J.-L. 2005. Securing Good Care for Older People: Taking a Long-term View. King's Fund, London.Google Scholar
Woodcock, S. 2008. Wage differentials in the presence of unobserved worker, firm and match heterogeneity. Labour Economics, 15, 4, 771–93.Google Scholar
World Bank 2001. Engendering Development Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice. World Bank Policy Research Report, Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar