Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-19T04:10:39.909Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

An investigation into the patterns of loneliness and loss in the oldest old – Newcastle 85+ Study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 October 2015

KATIE BRITTAIN ,
ANDREW KINGSTON ,
KAREN DAVIES ,
JOANNA COLLERTON ,
LOUISE A. ROBINSON ,
THOMAS B. L. KIRKWOOD ,
JOHN BOND  and
CAROL JAGGER
KATIE BRITTAIN*
Affiliation:
Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK.
ANDREW KINGSTON
Affiliation:
Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK.
KAREN DAVIES
Affiliation:
Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK.
JOANNA COLLERTON
Affiliation:
Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK.
LOUISE A. ROBINSON
Affiliation:
Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK.
THOMAS B. L. KIRKWOOD
Affiliation:
Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, UK.
JOHN BOND
Affiliation:
Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK.
CAROL JAGGER
Affiliation:
Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, UK. Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, UK.
*
Address for correspondence: Katie Brittain, Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Baddiley-Clark Building, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AX, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Old age is often characterised as being associated with neglect, isolation and loneliness, not least since established risks factors for loneliness include widowhood, living alone, depression and being female. Cross-sectional data have challenged the notion that loneliness is especially an old-age phenomenon but longitudinal data on loneliness is scarce. Moreover, an under-represented group in prior studies are the oldest old, those aged 85 years and more. This paper addresses these knowledge gaps using data from the Newcastle 85+ Study, a large population-based cohort aged 85 years at first interview with follow-up interviews at 18 months and three years. At baseline over half (55%) reported being always or often alone, and 41 per cent reported feeling more lonely than ten years previously, although only 2 per cent reported always feeling lonely. Women spent more time alone than men and reported more loneliness both currently and compared to the past. Length of widowhood was a key factor, with those recently widowed having twice the risk of feeling lonely and those widowed for five or more years having a lower risk of reporting increased loneliness. Overall, the findings show that loneliness is a minority experience in the oldest old but is strongly driven by length of widowhood, challenging the notion that loneliness in later life is a static experience.

Keywords

lonelinessoldest oldlongitudinal studyageing
Type
Articles
Information
Ageing & Society , Volume 37 , Issue 1 , January 2017 , pp. 39 - 62
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, K. B., Sanders, S. and Auth, E. A. 2004. Loneliness and depression in independent living retirement communities: risk and resilience factors. Aging and Mental Health, 8, 6, 475–85.Google Scholar
Alpass, F. M. and Neville, S. 2003. Loneliness, health and depression in older males. Aging and Mental Health , 7, 3, 212–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arber, S. and Ginn, J. 1994. Women and aging. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 4, 4, 349–58.Google Scholar
Aylaz, R., Aktürk, Ü., Erci, B., Öztürk, H. and Aslan, H. 2012. Relationship between depression and loneliness in elderly and examination of influential factors. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 55, 3, 548–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beach, B. and Bamford, S. M. 2014. Isolation: The Emerging Crisis for Older Men. The International Longevity Centre – UK, London.Google Scholar
Beaumont, J. 2013. Measuring National Well-being – Older People and Loneliness, 2013. Available online at http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171766_304939.pdf [Accessed 5 February 2014].Google Scholar
Bennett, K. M. 1996. A longitudinal study of wellbeing in widowed women. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 11, 1, 1005–10.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, K. M. 1998. Longitudinal changes in mental and physical health among recently widowed men. Mortality, 3, 3, 265–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, K. M. 2005. Psychological wellbeing in later life: the longitudinal effects of marriage, widowhood and marital status change. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 3, 280–4.Google Scholar
Boss, L., Kang, D.-H. and Branson, S. 2015. Loneliness and cognitive function in the older adult: a systematic review. International Psychogeriatrics, 27, 4, 541–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowling, A. 1995. The most important things in life. International Journal of Health Sciences, 6, 4, 160–75.Google Scholar
Browne, W. J. 2009. MCMC Estimation in MLwiN v2.1. Centre for Multilevel Modelling, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.Google Scholar
Brummett, B. H., Barefoot, J. C., Siegler, I. C., Clapp-Channing, N. E., Lytle, B. L. and Bosworth, H. B. 2001. Characteristics of socially isolated patients with coronary artery disease who are at elevated risk for mortality. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63, 2, 267–72.Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T. and Hawkley, L. C. 2009. Perceived social isolation and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 10, 447–54.Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T., Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C. and Thisted, R. A. 2006. Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Psychology and Aging, 21, 1, 140–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collerton, J., Barrass, K., Bond, J., Eccles, M., Jagger, C., James, O. and Kirkwood, T. 2007. The Newcastle 85+ Study: biological, clinical and psychosocial factors associated with health ageing: study protocol. BMC Geriatrics, 7, 14.Google Scholar
Collerton, J., Davies, K., Jagger, C., Kingston, A., Bond, J., Eccles, M. P. and Kirkwood, T. 2009. Health and disease in 85 year olds: baseline findings from the Newcastle 85+ cohort study. British Medical Journal, 399, part b4904, 1–11.Google Scholar
Davies, K., Collerton, J. C., Jagger, C., Bond, J., Barker, S. A. H., Edwards, J. and Robinson, A. L. 2010. Engaging the oldest old in research: lessons from the Newcastle 85+ study. BMC Geriatrics, 10, 64.Google Scholar
Davies, K., Kingston, A., Robinson, A. L., Hughes, J., Hunt, J. M., Barker, S. A. H., Edwards, J., Collerton, J., Jagger, C. and Kirkwood, T. B. L. 2014. Improving retention of very old participants in longitudinal research: experiences from the Newcastle 85+ Study. PLoS ONE, 910, e108370.Google Scholar
de Jong Gierveld, J. 1998. A review of loneliness: concept and definitions, determinants and consequences. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 8, 1, 73–80.Google Scholar
de Jong-Gierveld, J. and van Tilburg, T. 1987. The partner as source of social support in problem and non-problem situations. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2, 2, 191–200.Google Scholar
Dykstra, P. A., Van Tilburg, T. G. and de Jong Gierveld, J. 2005. Changes in older adult loneliness results from a seven-year longitudinal study. Research on Aging, 27, 6, 725–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenfield, E. A. and Russell, D. I. 2011. Identifying living arrangements that heighten risk for loneliness in later life: evidence from the U.S. National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 30, 524–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heikkinen, R.-L. and Kauppinen, M. 2011. Mental well-being: a 16-year follow-up among older residents in Jyväskylä. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 52, 1, 33–9.Google Scholar
Heylen, L. 2010. The older, the lonelier? Risk factors for social loneliness in old age. Ageing & Society, 30, 7, 1177–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, F. B. and Damon, B. L. 1996. 65+ in the United States. US Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Special Studies, P23-190, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC.Google Scholar
Hockey, J., Penhale, B. and Sibley, D. 2001. Landscapes of loss: spaces of memory, times of bereavement. Ageing & Society, 21, 6, 739–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iecovich, E., Jacobs, J. M. and Stessman, J. 2011. Loneliness, social networks, and mortality: 18 years of follow-up. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 72, 3, 243–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jagger, C. and Sutton, C. J. 1991. Death after marital bereavement – is the risk increased? Statistics in Medicine, 10, 3, 395–404.Google Scholar
Jirovec, R. L., Jirovec, M. M. and Bosse, R. 1984. Environmental determinants of neighbourhood satisfaction among urban elderly men. The Gerontologist, 24, 3, 261–5.Google Scholar
Jylhä, M. 2004. Old age and loneliness: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses in the Tampere Longitudinal Study on Aging. Canadian Journal on Aging/Revue canadienne du vieillissement, 23, special issue 2, 157–68.Google Scholar
Katz, S., Ford, A., Moskowitz, R., Jackson, B. and Jaffe, M. 1963. Studies of illness in the aged: the index of ADL, a standardised measure of biological and psychosocial function. Journal of the American Medical Association, 185, 12, 914–9.Google Scholar
Khaleeli, H. 2013. Britain's loneliness epidemic. The Guardian, 22 January. Available online at http://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/jan/22/the-loneliness-epidemic [Accessed 5 February 2014].Google Scholar
Kingston, A., Collerton, J., Davies, K., Bond, J., Robinson, L. and Jagger, C. 2012. Losing the ability in activities of daily living in the oldest old: a hierarchic disability scale from the Newcastle 85+ Study. PLoS One, 7, 2, e31665.Google Scholar
Kingston, A., Davies, K., Collerton, J., Robinson, L., Duncan, R., Bond, J., Kirkwood, T. B. L. and Jagger, C. 2015. The enduring effect of education – socioeconomic differences in disability trajectories from age 85 years in the Newcastle 85+ study. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 60, 3, 405–11.Google Scholar
Lawton, M. and Brody, E. 1969. Assessment of older people: self maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living. Gerontologist, 9, 179–86.Google Scholar
Luanaigh, C. O. and Lawlor, B. A. 2008. Loneliness and the health of older people. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 12, 1213–21.Google Scholar
Luo, Y., Hawkley, L. C., Waite, L. J. and Cacioppo, J. T. 2012. Loneliness, health, and mortality in old age: a national longitudinal study. Social Science and Medicine, 74, 6, 907–14.Google Scholar
Molloy, D. W. and Standish, T. I. M. 1997. Mental status and neuropsychological assessment: a guide to the standardized mini-mental state examination. International Psychogeriatrics, 9, 1, 87–94.Google Scholar
Murray, J. 2013. The lonely generation: late-life divorce. Husbands lost to dementia. Or marriages that are just empty shells. Mail Online, 19 July. Available online at http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-2370069/The-lonely-generation-Late-life-divorce-Husbands-lost-dementia-Or-marriages-just-shells.html [Accessed 5 February 2014].Google Scholar
Noble, M., Wright, G., Dibben, C., Smith, G. A. N., McLennan, D., Anttila, C. and Lloyd, M. 2007. The English Indices of Deprivation 2004 Revised. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London.Google Scholar
Nummela, O., Seppänen, M. and Uutela, A. 2011. The effect of loneliness and change in loneliness on self-rated health SRH: a longitudinal study among aging people. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 53, 2, 163–7.Google Scholar
Nyqvist, F., Forsman, A. K., Giuntoli, G. and Cattan, M. 2013. Social capital as a resource for mental well-being in older people: a systematic review. Aging and Mental Health, 17, 4, 394–410.Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics 2014. Disability-free Life Expectancy by Upper Tier Local Authority: England 2009–11 and Comparison with 2006–08. Available online at http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_372272.pdf [Accessed 5 December 2014].Google Scholar
Parkes, C. M. 1972. Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life. Tavistock, London.Google Scholar
Patterson, A. C. and Veenstra, G. 2010. Loneliness and risk of mortality: a longitudinal investigation in Alameda County, California. Social Science and Medicine, 71, 1, 181–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peace, S., Kellaher, L. and Holland, C. 2006. Environment and Identity in Later Life. Open University Press, Maidenhead, UK.Google Scholar
Penninx, B., Van Tilburg, T., Kriegsman, D., Deeg, D., Boeke, A. and Van Euk, J. 1997. Effects of social support and personal coping resources on mortality in older age: the longitudinal aging study Amsterdam. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146, 6, 510–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perissinotto, C. M., Cenzer, I. S. and Covinsky, K. E. 2012. Loneliness in older persons: a predictor of functional decline and death. Archives of Internal Medicine, 172, 14, 1078–83.Google Scholar
Pinquart, M. 2003. Loneliness in married, widowed, divorced, and never-married older adults. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20, 1, 31–53.Google Scholar
Pinquart, M. and Sorensen, S. 2001. Influences on loneliness in older adults: a meta-analysis. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 23, 4, 245–66.Google Scholar
Rasbash, J., Charlton, C., Browne, W. J., Healy, M. and Cameron, B. 2009. MLwiN Version 2.1. Centre for Multilevel Modelling, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.Google Scholar
Routasalo, P. and Pitkälä, K. H. 2003. Loneliness among older people. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 13, 4, 303–11.Google Scholar
Routasalo, P. E., Savikko, N., Tilvis, R. S., Strandberg, T. E. and Pitkälä, K. H. 2006. Social contacts and their relationship to loneliness among aged people – a population-based study. Gerontology, 52, 3, 181–7.Google Scholar
Russell, D. 1982. The measurement of loneliness. In Peplau, L. A. and Perlman, D. (eds), Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research, and Therapy. Wiley, New York, 81–104.Google Scholar
Savikko, N., Routasalo, P., Tilvis, R. S., Strandberg, T. E. and Pitkälä, K. H. 2005. Predictors and subjective causes of loneliness in an aged population. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 41, 3, 223–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shankar, A., Hamer, M., McMunn, A. and Steptoe, A. 2013. Social isolation and loneliness: relationships with cognitive function during 4 years of follow-up in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Psychosomatic Medicine, 75, 2, 161–70.Google Scholar
Sheikh, J. I. and Yesavage, J. A. 1986. Geriatric Depression Scale GDS: recent findings and development of a shorter version. In Brink, L. T. (ed.), Clinical Gerontology: A Guide to Assessment and Intervention. Haworth Press, New York, 165–174.Google Scholar
Shiovitz-Ezra, S. and Ayalon, L. 2010. Situational versus chronic loneliness as risk factors for all-cause mortality. International Psychogeriatrics, 22, 3, 455–62.Google Scholar
StataCorp. 2011. Stata Statistical Software: Release 12. StataCorp., College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
Stek, M. L., Vinkers, D. J., Gussekloo, J., Beekman, A. T., van der Mast, R. C. and Westendorp, R. G. 2005. Is depression in old age fatal only when people feel lonely? American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1, 178–80.Google Scholar
Stephens, C., Alpass, F., Towers, A. and Stevenson, B. 2011. The effects of types of social networks, perceived social support, and loneliness on the health of older people accounting for the social context. Journal of Aging and Health, 23, 6, 887–911.Google Scholar
Steptoe, A., Shankar, A., Demakakos, P. and Wardle, J. 2013. Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 15, 5797–807.Google Scholar
Tilvis, R. S., Kähönen-Väre, M. H., Jolkkonen, J., Valvanne, J., Pitkala, K. H. and Strandberg, T. E. 2004. Predictors of cognitive decline and mortality of aged people over a 10-year period. Journals of Gerontology: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 59A, 3, M268–74.Google Scholar
Tilvis, R. S., Laitala, V., Routasalo, P. E. and Pitkälä, K. H. 2011. Suffering from loneliness indicates significant mortality risk of older people. Journal of Aging Research, 2011, 534781. doi:10.4061/2011/534781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tilvis, R. S., Routasalo, P., Karppinen, H., Strandberg, T. E., Kautiainen, H. and Pitkala, K. H. 2012. Social isolation, social activity and loneliness as survival indicators in old age; a nationwide survey with a 7-year follow-up. European Geriatric Medicine, 3, 1, 18–22.Google Scholar
Tsai, H. H. and Tsai, Y. F. 2011. Changes in depressive symptoms, social support, and loneliness over 1 year after a minimum 3-month videoconference program for older nursing home residents. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 13, 4, c93.Google Scholar
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2009. World Population Ageing: 2009. ESA/P/WP/212. Available online at www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WPA2009/WPA2009_WorkingPaper.pdf [Accessed 6 November 2013].Google Scholar
Victor, C. R. and Bowling, A. 2012. A longitudinal analysis of loneliness among older people in Great Britain. Journal of Psychology, 146, 3, 313–31.Google Scholar
Victor, C. R., Scambler, S. J. and Bond, J. 2009. The Social World of Older People. Understanding Loneliness and Social Isolation in Later Life. Open University Press, Maidenhead, UK.Google Scholar
Victor, C., Scambler, S. J., Bond, J. and Bowling, A. 2000. Being alone in later life: loneliness, social isolation, and living alone. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 10, 4, 407–17.Google Scholar
Victor, C. R., Scambler, S., Bond, J. and Bowling, A. 2002. Loneliness in later life: preliminary findings from the Growing Older project. Quality in Ageing, 3, 1, 34–41.Google Scholar
Victor, C. R., Scambler, S. J., Bowling, A. N. N. and Bond, J. 2005. The prevalence of, and risk factors for, loneliness in later life: a survey of older people in Great Britain. Ageing & Society, 25, 3, 357–75.Google Scholar
Wenger, G. C. and Burholt, V. 2004. Changes in levels of social isolation and loneliness among older people in a rural area: a twenty-year longitudinal study. Canadian Journal on Aging, 23, 2, 115–27.Google Scholar
Wenger, G. C., Davies, R., Shahtahmasebi, S. and Scott, A. 1996. Social isolation and loneliness in old age: review and model refinement. Ageing & Society, 16, 3, 333–58.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. S., Krueger, K. R., Arnold, S. E., Schneider, J. A., Kelly, J. F., Barnes, L. L. and Bennett, D. A. 2007. Loneliness and risk of Alzheimer disease. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 2, 234–40.Google Scholar