Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T06:14:08.184Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Insights from the Cocoa Regions in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana: Rethinking the Migration–Conflict Nexus

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 October 2013

Abstract:

Although many scholars have noted the salience of mobility throughout the African continent, there has been little systematic investigation into the link between migration and conflict. Most scholarship has tended to see migration as primarily a by-product of conflict and not as a security issue in its own right. In analyzing and contrasting the different migration–conflict trajectories across two similar case studies—Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana—this article attempts to develop an empirically informed theoretical framework for understanding the nexus between migration and conflict in Africa and to shed light on key intervening variables linking migration processes with violent outcomes.

Résumé:

Résumé:

Même si plusieurs spécialistes ont remarqué la saillance de la mobilité à travers le continent africain, il y a eu peu d'investigations systématiques sur les liens entre les phénomènes de migration et de conflits. La recherche a eu tendance à considérer la migration comme effet secondaire des conflits, et non comme un problème de sécurité en lui-même. À travers l'analyse et la comparaison de trajectoires différentes du lien migration-conflit à travers deux études similaires sur le Ghana et la Côte d'Ivoire, cet article tente d'établir un cadre théorique basé sur une étude empirique pour comprendre le lien entre les processus de migration et de conflit en Afrique, et afin d'essayer de mettre en lumière les éléments clé contextuels reliant les phénomènes de migration avec des aboutissements violents.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adamson, Fiona B. 2006. “Crossing Borders: International Migration and National Security.” International Security 31 (1): 165–99.Google Scholar
Adepoju, Aderanti. 1995. “Migration in Africa: An Overview.” In The Migration Experience in Africa, edited by Baker, J. and Aina, T. A., 87108. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar
Airault, Pascal. 2010. “Présidentielle: la bataille de l'Ouest n'est pas gagnée par Laurent Gbagbo.” Jeune Afrique, October 27, 2010. www.jeuneafrique.com.Google Scholar
Aloa, Abiodun. 2007. Natural Resources and Conflict in Africa: The Tragedy of Endowment. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Amanor, Kojo Sebastian. 2007. “Conflicts and the Reinterpretation of Customary Tenure in Ghana.” In Conflicts over Land and Water in Africa, edited by Derman, Bill, Odgaard, Rie, and Sjaastad, Espen, 3359. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Amanor, Kojo Sebastian. 2008. “Sustainable Development, Corporate Accumulation and Community Expropriation: Land and Natural Resources in West Africa.” In Land and Sustainable Development in Africa, edited by Amanor, Kojo Sebastian and Moyo, Sam, 127–58. New York: Zed Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anarfi, John, et al. 2003. Migration from and to Ghana: A Background Paper. Working Paper C4, Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty, Brighton, U.K. Google Scholar
Aryeetey, Ernest, and Fosu, Augustin K.. 2005. “Economic Growth in Ghana: 1960–2000.” Paper presented at the AERC Growth Project Workshop, Cambridge, U.K..Google Scholar
Bah, Abu Bakarr. 2010. “Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d'Ivoire.” African Affairs 109/437: 597615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakewell, Oliver, and de Haas, Hein. 2007. “African Migrations: Continuities, Discontinuities and Recent Transformations.” In African Alternatives, edited by Chabal, Patrick, Engel, Ulf, and de Haan, Leo, 95118. Boston: Brill.Google Scholar
Banégas, Richard, and Marshall-Fratani, Ruth. 2007. “Côte d'Ivoire: Negotiating Identity and Citizenship.” In African Guerrillas: Raging against the Machine, edited by Bøås, Morten and Dunn, Kevin C., 81112. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 2008. “State Failure.” Annual Review of Political Science 11: 112.Google Scholar
Berry, Sara. 2009. “Property, Authority and Citizenship: Land Claims, Politics and the Dynamics of Social Division in West Africa.” Development and Change 40 (1): 2345.Google Scholar
Bøås, Morten. 2009. “‘New’ Nationalism and Autochthony—Tales of Origin as Political Cleavage.” Africa, Spectrum 44 ((1): 1938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boone, Catherine. 1998. “State Building in the African Countryside: Structure and Politics at the Grassroots.” The Journal of Development Studies 34 (4): 131.Google Scholar
Bossard, Laurent. 2003. “Peuplement et Migration en Afrique de l'Ouest: tine Crise Régionale en Côte d'Ivoire.” Afrique Contemporaine 206 (2): 151–65.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers, and Laitin, David D.. 1998. “Ethnic and Nationalist Violence.” Annual Review of Sociology 24: 423–52.Google Scholar
Castles, Stephen, and Miller, Mark J.. 2009. “Migration and Security.” In The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern, World (4th edition), 207–20. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Ceuppens, Bambi. 2006. “Allochthons, Colonizers, and Scroungers: Exclusionary Populism in Belgium.” African Studies Review 49 (2): 147–86.Google Scholar
Ceuppens, Bambi, and Geschiere, Peter. 2005. “Autochthony: Local or Global? New Modes in the Struggle over Citizenship and Belonging in Africa and Europe.” Annual Review of Anthropology 34: 385407.Google Scholar
Chauveau, Jean-Pierre. 2000. “Question Foncière et Construction Nationale en Côte d'Ivoire: les enjeux silencieux d'un coup d'état.” Politique Africaine 78 (juin): 94125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chauveau, Jean-Pierre. 2006. “How Does an Institution Evolve? Land, Politics, Intergenerational Relations and the Institution of the Tutorat between Autochthons and Migrant Farmers in the Gban Region (Côte d'Ivoire).” In Land and the Politics of Belonging in West Africa, edited by Kuba, Richard and Lentz, Carola, 213–40. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Chauveau, Jean-Pierre, and Léonard, Eric. 1996. “Côte d'Ivoire's Pioneer Fronts: Historical and Political Determinants of the Spread of Cocoa Cultivation.” In Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800: The Role of Smallholders, Planters and Merchants, edited by Clarence-Smith, William Gervase, 176–94. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Chauveau, Jean-Pierre, and Richards, Paul. 2008. “West African Insurgencies in Agrarian Perspective: Côte d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone Compared.” Journal of Agrarian Change 8 (4): 515–52.Google Scholar
Chirot, Daniel. 2006. “The Debacle in Côte d'Ivoire.” Journal of Democracy 2 (April): 6377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choucri, Nazli. 2002. “Migration and Security: Some Key Linkages.” Journal of International Affairs 56 (1): 97122.Google Scholar
Colin, Jean-Philippe, Kouamé, Georges, and Soro, Débégnoun. 2007. “Outside the Autochthon-Migrant Configuration: Access to Land, Land Conflicts and Interethnic Relationships in a Former Pioneer Area of lower Côte d'Ivoire.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 45 (1): 3359.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, and Hoeffler, Anke. 2004. “Greed and Grievance in Civil War.” Oxford Economic Papers 56: 563–95.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, Hoeffler, Anke, and Rohner, Dominic. 2009. “Beyond Greed and Grievance: Feasibility and Civil War.” Oxford Economic Papers 61: 127.Google Scholar
Crook, Richard. 1997. “Winning Coalitions and Ethno-Regional Politics: The Failure of the Opposition in the 1990 and 1995 Elections in Côte d'Ivoire.” African Affairs 96: 215–42.Google Scholar
Crook, Richard. 2001. “Cocoa Booms, the Legalisation of Land Relations and Politics in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana: Explaining Farmers Responses.” IDS Bulletin 32 (1): 3545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crush, Jonathan. 2008. The Perfect Storm: The Realities of Xenophobia in Contemporary South Africa. SAMP Migration Policy Series no. 50. Cape Town: IDASA.Google Scholar
Dannreuther, Roland. 2007. International Security: The Contemporary Agenda. Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Dozon, Jean-Pierre. 2000a. “La Côte d'Ivoire entre démocratie, nationalisme et ethnonationalisme.” Politique Africaine 78: 4562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dozon, Jean-Pierre. 2000b. “La Côte d'Ivoire au péril de I'ivoirité: genèse d'un coup d'État.” Afrique Contemporaine 193 (1): 1323.Google Scholar
Dunn, Kevin. C. 2009. “‘Sons of the Soil’ and Contemporary State Making: Autochthony, Uncertainty and Political Violence in Africa.” Third World Quarterly 30 (1): 113–27.Google Scholar
Fearon, James. 2005. “Primary Commodity Exports and Civil War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (4): 483507.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D.. 2000. “Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity.” International Organization 54 (4): 845–77.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D.. 2003. “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97 (1): 7590.Google Scholar
Freeman, Gary. 2005. “Political Science and Comparative Immigration Politics.” In International Migration Research: Constructions, Omissions and the Promises of Interdisciplinarity, edited by Bommes, Michael and Morawska, Ewa, 111–28. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Geschiere, Peter. 2009. The Perils of Belonging: Autochthony, Citizenship, and Exclusion in Africa and Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Geschiere, Peter, and Jackson, Stephen. 2006. “Autochthony and the Crisis of Citizenship: Democratization, Decentralization, and the Politics of Belonging.” African Studies Review 49 (2): 17.Google Scholar
Gilley, Bruce. 2004. “Against the Concept of Ethnic Conflict.” Third World Quarterly 25 (6): 1155–66.Google Scholar
Goldstone, Jack. 2002. “Population and Security: How Demographic Change Can Lead to Violent Conflict.” Journal of International Affairs 56 (1): 321.Google Scholar
Grant, J. Andrew, Mitchell, Matthew I., and Nyame, Frank K.. Forthcoming. “New Regionalisms, Micro-Regionalisms, and the Migration-Conflict Nexus: Evidence from Natural Resource Sectors in West Africa.” In The Ashgate Research Companion to Regionalisms, edited by Shaw, Timothy M., Grant, J. Andrew, and Cornelissen, Scarlett. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Green, Elliott D. 2007. “Demography, Diversity and Nativism in Contemporary Africa: Evidence from Uganda.” Nations and Nationalism 13 (4): 717–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, Polly. 1961. “The Migrant Cocoa Farmers of Southern Ghana.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 31 (3): 209–30.Google Scholar
Hollifield, James F. 2008. “The Politics of International Migration: How Can We “Bring the State Back In”?” In Migration Theories: Talking across Disciplines (2nd edition), edited by Bretell, Caroline B. and Hollifield, James F., 183237. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald. 2000. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. 2nd edition. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Watch, Human Rights. 2011a. “Côte d'Ivoire: West African Immigrants Massacred.” Human Rights Watch News Report, March 25. www.hrw.org.Google Scholar
Watch, Human Rights. 2011b. “Côte d'Ivoire: Ouattara Forces Kill, Rape Civilians During Offensive.” Human Rights Watch News Report, April 9. www.hrw.org.Google Scholar
Jackson, Stephen. 2006. “Sons of Which Soil? The Language and Politics of Autochthony in Eastern D.R. Congo.” African Studies Review 49 (2): 95123.Google Scholar
Jönsson, Julia. 2009. “The Overwhelming Minority: Inter-Ethnic Conflict in Ghana's Northern Region.” Journal of International Development 21: 507–19.Google Scholar
Kobo, Ousman. 2010. “‘We Are Citizens Too’: The Politics of Citizenship in Independent Ghana. “ The Journal of Modern African Studies 48 (1): 6795.Google Scholar
Konadu-Agyemang, Kwadwo. 2000. “The Best of Times and the Worst of Times: Structural Adjustment Programs and Uneven Development in Africa: The Case of Ghana.” The Professional Geographer 52 (3): 469–83.Google Scholar
Konadu-Agyemang, Kwadwo, and Adanu, Sesime. 2003. “The Changing Geography of Export Trade in Ghana under Structural Adjustment Programs: Some Socioeconomic and Spatial Implications.” The Professional Geographer 55 (4): 513–27.Google Scholar
Laitin, David. 2009. “Immigrant Communities and Civil War.” International Migration Review 43 (1): 3559.Google Scholar
Langer, Arnim. 2008. “When Do Horizontal Inequalities Lead to Conflict?: Lessons from a Comparative Study of Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.” In Horizontal Inequalities and Violent Conflict: Understanding Group Violence in Multiethnic Societies, edited by Stewart, Frances, 163–89. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Le Billon, Philippe. 2001. “The Political Ecology of War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts.” Political Geography 20 (5): 561–84.Google Scholar
Lischer, Sarah Kenyon. 2005. Dangerous Sanctuaries: Refugee Camps, Civil War, and the Dilemmas of Humanitarian Aid. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Lund, Christian. 2008. Local Politics and the Dynamics of Properly in Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. 2001. When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Marshall-Fratani, Ruth. 2006. “The War of ‘Who Is Who’: Autochthony, Nationalism, and Citizenship in the Ivoirian Crisis.” African Studies Review 49 (2): 943.Google Scholar
Martin, Adrian. 2005. “Environmental Conflict between Refugee and Host Communities.“ Journal of Peace Research 42 (3): 329–46.Google Scholar
Massey, Douglas S. 1999. “International Migration at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: The Role of the State.” Population and Development Review 25 (2): 303–22.Google Scholar
Morris Maclean, Lauren. 2010. Informal Institutions and Citizenship in Rural Africa: Risk and Reciprocity in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mueller, John. 2000. “The Banality of ‘Ethnic War.’” International Security 25 (1): 4270.Google Scholar
Nordås, Ragnhild. 2007. “Identity Polarization and Conflict: State Building in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana.” Paper prepared for the Conference on Polarization and Conflict, Gaillac, June 7–9.Google Scholar
Peil, Margaret. 1971. “The Expulsion of West African Aliens.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 9 (2): 205–29.Google Scholar
Peil, Margaret. 1974. “Ghana's Aliens.” International Migration Review 8 (3): 367–81.Google Scholar
Posen, Barry. 1993. “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict.” Survival 35 (1): 2747.Google Scholar
Rathbone, Richard. 2000. Nkrumah and the Chiefs: The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana 1951–60. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Reuveny, Rafael. 2007. “Climate Change–Induced Migration and Violent Conflict.” Political Geography 26: 656–73.Google Scholar
Ross, Michael L. 2004. “How Do Natural Resources Influence Civil War: Evidence from Thirteen Cases.” International Organization 58 (1): 3567.Google Scholar
Rudolph, Christopher. 2003. “Security and the Political Economy of International Migration.” American Political Science Review 97 (4): 603–20.Google Scholar
Rudolph, Christopher. 2006. National Security and Immigration: Policy Development in the United States and Western Europe since 1945. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Salehyan, Idean. 2008. “The Externalities of Civil Strife: Refugees as a Source of International Conflict.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (4): 787801.Google Scholar
Salehyan, Idean, and Gleditsch, Kristian. 2006. “Refugees and the Spread of Civil War.” International Organization 60 (2): 335–66.Google Scholar
Sambanis, Nicholas. 2002. “A Review of Recent Advances and Futvire Directions in the Quantitative Literature on Civil War.” Defence and Peace Economics 13 (3): 215–43.Google Scholar
Shipton, Parker. 1994. “Land and Culture in Tropical Africa: Soils, Symbols, and the Metaphysics of the Mundane.” Annual Review of Anthropology 23: 347–77.Google Scholar
Skeldon, Ronald. 1997. Migration and Development: A Global Perspective. Harlow, U.K.: Longman.Google Scholar
Skeldon, Ronald. 2008. “International Migration as a Tool in Development Policy: A Passing Phase?Population and Development Review 34 (1): 118.Google Scholar
Snyder, Jack. 2000. From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.Google Scholar
Toungara, Jeanne Maddox. 2001. “Ethnicity and Political Crisis in Côte d'Ivoire.” Journal of Democracy 12 (3): 6472.Google Scholar
Tsikata, Dzodzi, and Seini, Wayo. 2004. Identities, Inequalities and Conflicts in Ghana. CRISE Working Paper 5, Oxford University.Google Scholar
UNHCR. “Côte d'Ivoire Needs Reconciliation for Displaced People to Return, Says UNHCR.” Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Neivs Stories, April 15. www.unhcr.org.Google Scholar
UNOCI. 2010. “Statement on the Certification of the Result of the Second Round of the Presidential Election Held on 28 November 2010.” United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire. www.un.org.Google Scholar
Van Dijk, Han, Foeken, Dick, and van Til, Kiky. 2001. “Population Mobility in Africa: An Overview.” In Mobile Africa: Changing Patterns of Movement in Africa and Beyond, edited by de Bruijn, Mirjam, van Dijk, Rijk and Foeken, Dick, 926. Boston: Brill.Google Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 19921993. “Security, Stability, and International Migration.” International Security 17 (3): 91126.Google Scholar
Williams, Paul D. 2007. “Thinking about Security in Africa.” International Affairs 83 (6): 1021–38.Google Scholar
Woods, Dwayne. 2003. “The Tragedy of the Cocoa Pod: Rent-Seeking, Land and Ethnic Conflict in Ivory Coast.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (4): 641–55.Google Scholar
Woods, Dwayne. 2004. “Predatory Elites, Rents and Cocoa: A Comparative Analysis of Ghana and Ivory Coast.” Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 42 (2): 224–41.Google Scholar
Yéré, Henri-Michel. 2007. “Reconfiguring Nationhood in Côte d'Ivoire?” In Perspectives on Côte d'Ivoire: Between Political Breakdown and Post-Conflict Peace, edited by Obi, Cyril I., 5065. Discussion Paper 39. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar
Young, Crawford. 2007. “Nation, Ethnicity, and Citizenship: Dilemmas of Democracy and Civil Order in Africa.” In Making Nations, Creating Strangers: States and Citizenship in Africa, edited by Dorman, Sara, Hammett, Daniel, and Nugent, Paul, 241–64. Boston: Brill.Google Scholar