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Tradition and Travesty: Chiefs and the Administration in Makoni District, Zimbabwe, 1960–1980

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 December 2011

Terence Ranger
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Extract

During the first months of 19811 was in Makoni district, Zimbabwe, carrying out research on its twentieth-century history. I arrived there bearing a powerful letter of credit from the Minister of Local Government and, as a result, the District Commissioner allowed me to see his current files on chiefs and headmen. These files – far fatter than any that had survived from an earlier period in the National Archives – covered the period 1960 to 1980, with a scattering of earlier material. They were full of elaborately researched precolonial histories of the chiefdoms, the more elaborately researched the later in time they were compiled. They were also full of equally elaborate chiefly genealogies, often covering a dozen or so pages. The District Commissioner supposed that his files would be interesting to a historian because of these evidences of the past. But I soon came to realize that they were secondary to, and dependent upon, the relationship which the files really documented.

Résumé

Tradition et Parodie: Les Chefs et l'Administration dans le district de Makoni, Zimbabwe 1960–80

Vers la fin des annees soixante et soixante-dix, l'Administration rhodésienne tenta de former un ‘gouvernement tribal’ à la tête duquel seraient les chefs. On effectua des recherches pour découvrir les procédures traditionnelles à l nomination des chefs, à l'administration de la justice locale, et à l'obtention de bonnes récoltes. L'idée de ‘tradition’ de l'administration était cependant rigide et restrictive. La ‘tradition’ administrative était un ensemble de règles normatives. Les chefs de leur côté utilisaient la ‘tradition’ comme un ensemble de ressources pragmatiques. Enfin les nationalistes africains et les chefs de guérillas se servaient de la ‘tradition’ afin de revenir au passé héroïque à l'encontre du présent. Cet article tend à montrer l'intéraction entre ces trois notions de tradition. II montre que les plans de l'Administration furent contrecarrés et lorsqu'il y avait au pouvoir des chefs puissants, et lorsqu'il y en avait de faibles. II démontre qu'en fin de compte l'Administration devint prisonnière de ses propres règles traditionnelles et formelles. Tandis que d'abord quelques chefs, et ensuite les partisans furent capables d'utiliser leurs propres stratégies de tradition beaucoup plus effectivement. En particulier, les partisans opposèrent les sorciers aux chefs. Sapant ainsi la base du gouvernement tribal élaboré par le régime rhodésien.

Type
Past and Present in Zimbabwe
Information
Africa , Volume 52 , Issue 3 , July 1982 , pp. 20 - 41
Copyright
Copyright © International African Institute 1982

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References

Notes

1 Deputy Secretary, Administration, to Minister of Internal Affairs, 24 November 1962, file ‘Makoni’, District Commissioner's Office, Rusape. Except where otherwise specified all references are to files in the District Commissioner's office.

2 Memo by de Bruijn, L. J., Acting Provincial Commissioner, Manicaland, ‘Weya T.T.L.: Makoni District’, 1971, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.Google Scholar

3 By-laws made by chief Zambe, Makoni and Councillors under the Land Tenure (Proceedings of Tribal Land Authority Meetings) Regulations of 1969, file ‘Old papers on Chief Makoni’.Google Scholar

4 Minutes of Provincial Assembly of Manicaland Chiefs, 25 March 1975, file ‘Chiduku: Chief Tandi’.

5 D.C., Rusape, to P.C., Manicaland, 22 January 1975, file ‘Chikore chieftainship’.

6 D.C., Rusape, to P.C., 24 January 1975, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

7 Hatendi, Roland to D.C., Rusape, 23 May 1972, file ‘Makoni: Headman Rugoyi’.Google Scholar

8 Hatendi, Roland to D.C., Rusape, 20 October 1972, file ‘Chiduku: Chief Tandi’.Google Scholar

9 Holleman, J. F., Chief, Council and Commissioner, Assen, 1968, p. 358.Google Scholar

10 For explicit reference to administrative obligations under the Act see D.C., Rusape, to Macdonnell Stewart and Co., 13 June 1974, file ‘Chiduku: Chief Chipunza’. ‘In order to have an African chief appointed the Minister of Internal Affairs has to show the President that the nominee has been selected with all due observance of the tribe's traditions and customs. This is written into …the African Affairs Act and officers of this Ministry are extremely careful to see that the Minister's confidence is well founded’.

11 de Bruijn, L. J. to P.C., 31 December 1970, file ‘Makoni’.Google Scholar

12 For a fuller discussion of the links between spirit mediums, chiefs and the agrarian economy, see Terence Ranger, ‘Religions and rural protests’, in Religion and Rural Revolt, eds. G. Benecke and Janos Bak, forthcoming.

13 ‘Extract from L/Cpl Hwanyanya's Report’, January 1976, file ‘Chikore chieftainship’.

14 N.C., Rusape, to P.C., 28 March 1952, file ‘Old Papers on Chief Makoni’.

15 N.C., Rusape, to Chief N.C., 8 March 1957, file ‘Old Papers on Chief Makoni’.

16 N.C., Rusape, to P.C., 13 February, 13 June and 21 December 1961, file ‘Makoni’.

17 Interview with Nyagumbo, Maurice, Salisbury, 14 January 1981.Google Scholar

18 Interview with Sylvester, Mudzimuremba, Rugoyi clinic, 22 March 1981.Google Scholar

19 D.C., Rusape, to P.C., 28 February 1963, file ‘Makoni’.

20 D.C., Rusape, to P.C., 29 April 1963, file ‘Makoni’.

21 Interview with Roland, Hatendi, Tandi, 21 February 1981.Google Scholar

22 Meeting between Morris, S., Secretary for Internal Affairs, and chief Makoni, 26 August 1963, file ‘Makoni’.Google Scholar

23 Acting D. C., Rusape, to P. C., 12 April 1967, file ‘Makoni’.

24 P.C. to Secretary, Internal Affairs, 17 April 1970, file ‘Makoni’.

25 D.C., Rusape, to P.C, 5 March 1965, file ‘Makoni’.

26 Annah, Mavengeni in an interview with Peter, Chakanyuka in Nedewedzo, Chiduku, on 8 February 1981 described how a case of witchcraft accusation in 1962 was taken before Zambe Makoni, who authorized it to be taken to no fewer than four diviners. His own diviner concluded the matter.Google Scholar

27 Sentence, Regina versus Kenneth Jarahuni, 22 April 1964, file ‘Makoni’.

28 ‘Action Taken: Chief Makoni: Criticism by High Court’, 27 May 1964, file ‘Makoni’.

29 Based on ‘Old Papers on Chief Makoni’ file.

30 Interview with Hatendi, Roland, Tandi, 6 February 1981.Google Scholar

31 Delineation of Communities, Makoni District, November/December 1965. I am grateful to Professor M. Murphree for allowing me to make use of his copies of the delineation reports.

32 D.C., Rusape to P. C, 31 October 1966, file ‘Makoni: Headman Rugoyi’.

33 D.C., Rusape to P. C, 22 July 1965, file ‘Makoni’.

34 D.C., Rusape to Gwasira, 17 July 1971; Gwasira to D.C., 28 July 1971, file ‘Makonf’.

35 D.C., Rusape to Member in Charge, C.I.D., 10 October 1972, file ‘Makoni’.

36 E. F. C. Sithole to Secretary, Internal Affairs, 18 September 1972, file ‘Makoni’.

37 Peck, A. J. A. to D.C., Rusape, 19 October 1972, file ‘Makoni’.Google Scholar

38 Peck, A. J. A. to Secretary, Internal Affairs, 7 November 1972, file ‘Makoni’.Google Scholar

39 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 31 October 1972, file ‘Makoni’.

40 Petition, of representatives of 5 chiefly houses, 31 November 1972, file ‘Makoni’.Google Scholar

41 Makoni, Chief Muzanenamo to D.C., Rusape, 30 July 1973, file ‘Makoni’.Google Scholar

42 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 18 July 1975, file ‘Makoni’.

43 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 9 December 1969, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

44 ‘Chendambuya, ’, June 1972, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.Google Scholar

45 Ranger, Terence, ‘From Peasant Nationalism to Guerilla War: Makoni District, Zimbabwe, 1960 to 1980’, Conference on Rural Protest in Africa, Urbana, Illinois, April 1982.Google Scholar

46 Leonard Murumbi, ‘Soil Conservation Report – Weya T.T.L. ‘, ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

47 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 29 January 1971, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

48 Ibid.

49 Secretary, Internal Affairs to P.C., 30 May 1972, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

50 ‘Justification for the removal of A/Ds from Weya’, 2 February 1973, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.Google Scholar

51 Provincial Special Branch Officer to P.C., 4 January 1973, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

52 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 4 February 1974, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

53 D.C., Rusape to O.C., BSAP, 31 December 1975, file ‘Weya: Chendambuya’.

54 N.C., Rusape to Chief Native Commissioner, 18 September 1943, file ‘Old Papers on Chief Makoni’.

55 N.C., Rusape to C.N.C., 8 May 1937, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

56 D.C., Rusape to Member in Charge, C.I.D., 10 October 1972, file ‘Makoni’.

57 D.C., Rusape to D.C., Sinoia, 20 December 1969, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

58 D.C., Rusape to D.C., Sinoia, 20 December 1969, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

59 D.C., Sinoia to D.C., Rusape, 6 January 1970, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

60 D.C., Rusape to D.C., Sinoia, 22 July 1970, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

61 D.C., Rusape to D.C., Sinoia, 10 August 1970, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

62 D.C., Rusape to D.C., Wedza, 10 August 1970, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

63 ‘Chiduku Chieftainship’, 13 February 1973, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.Google Scholar

64 Meeting of D.C., Rusape with Diva and others, 6 February 1975, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

65 Roland Hatendi, ‘The position of Madziwadondo’, n.d., file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

66 Meeting between Roland, Hatendi and Takawira, Zambuko, etc, 11 June 1975, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.Google Scholar

67 Draft by Roland, Hatendi, 1975, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.Google Scholar

68 ‘Minutes of a meeting held at Chiwetu’, 17 December 1975, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.Google Scholar

69 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 3 December 1976, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

70 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 21 February 1977, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

71 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 1 December 1976, file ‘Chief Chiduku: Chiduku’.

72 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 21 July 1976, file ‘Makoni: Headman Madziwa’.

73 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 26 July 1972; D.C. to O.C, BSAP, 31 December 1975, file ‘Tanda: Headman Makumbe’.

74 Clarke, L. M. to D.C., Rusape, 4 September 1977, file ‘Chiduku: Headman Nyangombe’.Google Scholar

75 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 13 September 1977, file ‘Chiduku: Headman Nyangombe’.

76 Interview with District Commissioner Bickersteth, I. S. L., Rusape, 6 February 1981.Google Scholar

77 This was the list given to me by Makoni, Chief Muzanenamo and his councillors at Sangano, 8 February 1981.Google Scholar

78 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 12 October 1977, file ‘Chiduku: Headman Masvosva’.

79 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 16 December 1976, file ‘Tanda: Headman Maparura’.

80 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 21 August 1978, file ‘Chief Chipunza: Chiduku’.

81 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 13 June 1978, ‘Chiduku: Headman Rukweza’.

82 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 15 November 1977; Sitrep, 28 September 1979, file ‘Chiduku: Headman Nyangombe’.

83 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 24 August and 21 September 1977; Secretary, Internal Affairs to P.C., 9 September 1977, file ‘Tanda: Headman Makumbe’.

84 D.C., Rusape to P.C., 10 October 1978, file ‘Chiduku: Headman Rukweza’.

85 ‘Extracts from L/Cpl Hwanyanya's Report’, December 1975, file ‘Chikore: Spirit Medium’.Google Scholar

86 Ranger, Terence, ‘The death of Chaminuka: spirit mediums, nationalism and the guerilla war’, African Affairs, June 1982, describes the main collaborating spirit medium in Makoni district. This was Muchetera, supposed medium of Chaminuka, the greatest of the Shona supra-tribal spirits. Muchetera claimed supremacy over all the chiefs: Zambe and Muzanenamo Makoni totally repudiated this; Muchetera then sought support from the white administration, pledging them the backing of Chaminuka in return. Muchetera was killed by the guerillas during the war.Google Scholar

87 Terence Ranger, ‘The death of Chaminuka’ and ‘Religions and rural protests’.

88 Interview between Dawson Munjeri and Aaron Mutambirwa Makoni, lO and 17May 1979, National Archives Oral History Collection, AOH/54, National Archives, Salisbury.

89 Interview with headman Gova Mpambawhale, Toriro, Chiduku, 24 March 1981.

90 Interview with Akuchekwa medium and acolyte, Tandi, Chiduku, 27 February 1981.

91 Interview with Muzanenamo Makoni and Councillors, Sangano, 8 February 1981.