Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T18:48:50.377Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

BECOMING ‘COSMO’: DISPLACEMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND DISGUISE IN ONGATA RONGAI

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Abstract

Ongata Rongai, a rapidly growing, ethnically heterogeneous community on Nairobi's urban periphery, has remained remarkably convivial in a country so frequently defined by conflicts over land and belonging. Bolstered by a distinct set of political logics and social practices, many of the site's multi-ethnic residents overtly reject the validity of ethnic violence and politics with reference to an explicitly articulated universalist inclusivity rarely seen in Kenya. Locally described as ‘being cosmo’, this distinct political rhetoric and emerging subjectivity has its roots in the mixed ethnic origins of its leaders, the history of land acquisition, and xenophobic persecution and displacements elsewhere in the country. More specifically, the evolution of this conviviality in the shadow of conflict has been driven by the interests of ‘half-caste’ political elites and increasingly established Kikuyu landowners. Together they draw on and reinforce a foundation myth of fair land transfers to promote peace and their own economic and electoral ambitions. The result is a vernacular and spatialized cosmopolitanism that fosters localized ethnic blindness. Its success depends on demonizing discourses of indigeneity while embracing ideas of ethnic homelands beyond the city. By acting as a foil to a growing literature on the ethnicization of land and space in Africa, this article demonstrates the need to understand spatially constructed subjectivities as responses to supra-local social and political practice.

Résumé

Ongata Rongai, une communauté ethniquement hétérogène qui connait une croissance rapide à la périphérie urbaine de Nairobi, est restée remarquablement conviviale dans un pays si fréquemment défini par des conflits liés à la terre et à l'appartenance. Soutenus par un ensemble distinct de logiques politiques et de pratiques sociales, un grand nombre des résidents appartenant à des groupes ethniques multiples rejettent ouvertement violence et politique ethniques et promeuvent au contraire des pratiques inclusives larges rarement observées au Kenya. « Etre cosmo » comme elle est décrite localement, est une subjectivité politique distincte qui trouve ses origines dans les origines pluriethniques de ses dirigeants, dans l'histoire de l'acquisition des terres, et dans les persécutions xénophobes et les déplacements ailleurs dans le pays. De manière plus spécifique, l’évolution de cette convivialité au milieu des conflits a été dessinés par les intérêts d’élites politiques « métisses » et des propriétaires kikuyu bien établis. Ensemble, ils utilisent et renforcent un mythe fondateur d'un transfert équitable de terres pour promouvoir la paix et leurs propres ambitions économiques et électorales. Il en résulte un cosmopolitisme vernaculaire et spatialisé qui dépasse les affiliations ethniques localisées endiabolisant les discours d'indigénéité tout en tolérant les affiliations ethniques en dehors de la ville. En tant que contre point à une littérature croissante consacrée à l‘ethnicisation en Afrique, cet article démontre la nécessité de comprendre les subjectivités spatialement construites comme des réactions à une pratique sociale et politique plus large.

Type
The politics of exclusion and inclusion in Africa
Copyright
Copyright © International African Institute 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ajulu, R. (2010) ‘Politicized ethnicity, competitive politics and conflict in Kenya: a historical perspective’, African Studies 61 (2): 251–68.Google Scholar
Akech, M. (2010) Institutional Reform in the New Constitution of Kenya. New York NY: International Center for Transitional Justice.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. M. (2002) ‘Vigilantes, violence and the politics of public order in Kenya’, African Affairs 101 (405): 531–55.Google Scholar
Balaton-Chrimes, S. (2013) ‘Indigeneity and Kenya's Nubians: seeking equality in difference or sameness?’, Journal of Modern African Studies 51 (2): 331–54.Google Scholar
Bank, L. J. (2002) ‘Beyond red and school: gender, tradition and identity in the rural Eastern Cape’, Journal of Southern African Studies 28 (3): 631–49.Google Scholar
Bank, L. J. (2011) Home Spaces, Street Styles: contesting power and identity in a South African city. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Bauman, Z. (2000) Globalization: its human consequences. New York NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Benjamin, W. (1999) The Arcades Project. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Boas, M. (2009) ‘“New” nationalism and autochthony: tales of origin as political cleavage’, Africa Spectrum 44 (1): 1938.Google Scholar
Bratton, M. and Kimenyi, M. S. (2008) Voting in Kenya: putting ethnicity in perspective. Afrobarometer Working Paper 95. Cape Town: IDASA.Google Scholar
Campbell, D. (1998) National Deconstruction: violence, identity and justice in Bosnia. Minneapolis MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Comaroff, J. and Comaroff, J. L. (2001) ‘Naturing the nation: aliens, apocalypse and the postcolonial state’, Journal of Southern African Studies 27 (3): 627–51.Google Scholar
Conversi, D. (1999) ‘Nationalism, boundaries, and violence’, Millennium 28 (3): 553–84.Google Scholar
de Smedt, J. V. A. (2011) ‘The Nubis of Kibera: a social history of the Nubians and Kibera slums’. PhD thesis, Leiden University.Google Scholar
Diouf, M. (2000) ‘The Senegalese Murid trade diaspora and the making of a vernacular cosmopolitanism’, Public Culture 12 (3): 679702.Google Scholar
Dunn, K. C. (2009) ‘“Sons of the soil” and contemporary state making: autochthony, uncertainty and political violence in Africa’, Third World Quarterly 30 (1): 113–27.Google Scholar
Ferguson, J. (1999) Expectations of Modernity: myths and meanings of urban life on the Zambian Copperbelt. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gemici, K. (2008) ‘Karl Polanyi and the antinomies of embeddedness’, Socioeconomic Review 6 (1): 533.Google Scholar
Geschiere, P. (2009) The Perils of Belonging: autochthony, citizenship, and exclusion in Africa and Europe. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gettleman, J. (2008) ‘Ethnic violence in Rift Valley is tearing Kenya apart’, New York Times, 27 January, <http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/africa/27kenya.html?_r=0>, accessed 31 March 2014.,+accessed+31+March+2014.>Google Scholar
Götz, G. and Simone, A. (2003) ‘On belonging and becoming in African cities’ in Tomlinson, R., Beauregard, R., Bremner, L. and Mangcu, X. (eds), Emerging Johannesburg: perspectives on the postapartheid city. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Green, E. (2012) ‘The political demography of conflict in modern Africa’, Civil Wars 14 (4): 477–98.Google Scholar
Haas, E. B. (2000) Nationalism, Liberalism and Progress: the dismal fate of new nations. Vol. 2. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Harvey, D. (2008) ‘The right to the city,’ New Left Review 53: 2340.Google Scholar
IRIN (2008) ‘Kenya: armed and dangerous’, Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN) website, 22 February, <http://www.irinnews.org/report/76896/kenya-armed-and-dangerous>, accessed 11 March 2014.,+accessed+11+March+2014.>Google Scholar
Joireman, S. and Vanderpoel, R. S. (2010) ‘In search of order: property rights enforcement in Kibera settlement, Kenya’. Paper presented at the World Bank Conference on Land Policy and Administration, Washington DC, 2627 April, <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTARD/Resources/336681-1236436879081/5893311-1271205116054/Joireman.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Kagwanja, P. M. (2003) ‘Facing Mount Kenya or facing Mecca? The Mungiki, ethnic violence and the politics of the Moi succession in Kenya, 1987–2002’, African Affairs 102 (406): 2549.Google Scholar
Kanyinga, K. (2009) ‘The legacy of the White Highlands: land rights, ethnicity and the post-2007 election violence in Kenya,’ Journal of Contemporary African Studies 27 (3): 325–44.Google Scholar
Katumanga, M. (2005) ‘A city under siege: banditry and modes of accumulation in Nairobi, 1991–2004’, Review of African Political Economy 32 (106): 505–20.Google Scholar
Keith, M. (2005) After the Cosmopolitan? Multicultural cities and the future of racism. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Klopp, J. M. (2010) ‘Can moral ethnicity trump political tribalism? The struggle for land and nation in Kenya’, African Studies 61 (2): 269–94.Google Scholar
KNBS (2010) 2009 Kenyan Population Census. Nairobi: Kenyan National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), Government of Kenya Press.Google Scholar
Lake, D. A. and Rothschild, D. (eds) (1998) The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: fear, diffusion, and escalation. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Landau, L. B. (2006) ‘Transplants and transients: idioms of belonging and dislocation in inner-city Johannesburg’, African Studies Review 49 (2): 125–45.Google Scholar
Landau, L. B. and Duponchel, M. (2011) ‘Laws, policies, or social position? Capabilities and the determinants of effective protection in four African cities’, Journal of Refugee Studies 24 (1): 122.Google Scholar
Landau, L. B. and Freemantle, I. (2010) ‘Tactical cosmopolitanism and idioms of belonging: insertion and self-exclusion in Johannesburg’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 36 (3): 375–90.Google Scholar
Levinas, E. (1994) In the Time of Nations. Translated by Smith, Michael B.. London: Athlone Press.Google Scholar
Lonsdale, J. (1994) ‘Moral ethnicity and political tribalism’ in Kaarsholm, P. and Hultin, J. (eds), Inventions and Boundaries: historical and anthropological approaches to the study of ethnicity and nationalism. Roskilde: Roskilde University.Google Scholar
Lynch, G. (2011) ‘Kenya's new indigenes: negotiating local identities in a global context’, Nations and Nationalism 17 (1): 148–67.Google Scholar
Madhavan, S. and Landau, L. B. (2011) ‘Bridges to nowhere: hosts, migrants and the chimera of social capital in three African cities’, Population and Development Review 37 (3): 473–97.Google Scholar
Malauene, D. (2004) ‘The impact of the Congolese forced migrants' “permanent transit” condition on their relations with Mozambique and its people’. MA thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.Google Scholar
Mandaville, P. G. (1999) ‘Territory and translocality: discrepant idioms of political identity’, Millennium 28 (3): 653–73.Google Scholar
Marx, B., Stoker, T. M. and Suri, T. (2013) ‘The economics of slums in the developing world’, Journal of Economic Perspectives 27 (4): 187210.Google Scholar
Mbembe, A. and Nuttall, S. (2004) ‘Writing the world from an African metropolis’, Public Culture 16 (3): 347–72.Google Scholar
Meyers, G. (2011) African Cities: alternative visions of urban theory and practice. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Napier, M., Berrisford, S., Kihato, C. W., McGaffin, R. and Royston, L. (2014) Trading Places: accessing land in African cities. Somerset West: African Minds.Google Scholar
Nowicka, M. and Vertovec, S. (2013) ‘Comparing convivialities: dreams and realities of living-with-difference’, European Journal of Cultural Studies 17 (4): 341–56.Google Scholar
Otieno, M. J. (2011) ‘Study of Ongata Rongai, Kenya’. Research conducted on behalf of the author.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. (2013) ‘The urban now: theorising cities beyond the new’, European Journal of Cultural Studies 16 (6): 659–77.Google Scholar
Sandercock, L. (1998) Towards Cosmopolis: planning for multicultural cities. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Simmel, G. (1964) The Sociology of George Simmel. Translated by Wolff, K.. New York NY: Free Press.Google Scholar
Simmel, G. (2002) ‘The metropolis and mental life’ in Bridge, G. and Watson, S. (eds), The Blackwell City Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Simone, A. (2001) ‘On the worlding of African cities’, African Studies Review 44 (2): 1541.Google Scholar
Waki Commission (2008) Kenya's Commission of Inquiry into Post-Election Violence: final report. Nairobi: Government of Kenya.Google Scholar
Weber, M. (1966) The City. New York NY: Free Press.Google Scholar
Werbner, P. (2006) ‘Understanding vernacular cosmopolitanism’, Anthropology News 47 (5): 711.Google Scholar
Yusuf, M. (2013) ‘Kiambaa Kenyans reflect on past election violence’, Voice of America, 3 March, <http://www.voanews.com/content/kiambaa-kenyans-reflect-on-past-election-violence/1614409.html>, accessed 31 March 2014.,+accessed+31+March+2014.>Google Scholar