Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T05:30:31.920Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Morphing skins

Part of: Smart Aircraft

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 February 2016

C. Thill ,
J. Etches ,
I. Bond ,
K. Potter  and
P. Weaver
C. Thill
Affiliation:
Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS), Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
J. Etches
Affiliation:
Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS), Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
I. Bond
Affiliation:
Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS), Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
K. Potter
Affiliation:
Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS), Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
P. Weaver
Affiliation:
Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS), Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A review of morphing concepts with a strong focus on morphing skins is presented. Morphing technology on aircraft has found increased interest over the last decade because it is likely to enhance performance and efficiency over a wider range of flight conditions. For example, a radical change in configuration, i.e. wing geometry in flight may improve overall flight performance when cruise and dash are important considerations. Although many morphing aircraft concepts have been elaborated only a few deal with the problems relating to a smooth and continuous cover that simultaneously deforms and carries loads. It is found that anisotropic and variable stiffness structures offer potential for shape change and small area increase on aircraft wings. Concepts herein focus on those structures where primary loads are transmitted in the spanwise direction and a morphing function is achieved via chordwise flexibility. To meet desirable shape changes, stiffnesses can either be tailored or actively controlled to guarantee flexibility in the chordwise (or spanwise) direction with tailored actuation forces. Hence, corrugated structures, segmented structures, reinforced elastomers or flexible matrix composite tubes embedded in a low modulus membrane are all possible structures for morphing skins. For large wing area changes a particularly attractive solution could adopt deployable structures as no internal stresses are generated when their surface area is increased.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Aeronautical Journal , Volume 112 , Issue 1129 , March 2008 , pp. 117 - 139
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Aeronautical Society 2008 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Oxford English Dictionary, 2007, http://dictionary.oed.com, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
2. Wiggins, L.D., Stubbs, M.D., Johnston, C.O., Robertshaw, H.H., Reinholtz, C.F. and Inman, D.J., A design and analysis of a morphing hyper-elliptic cambered span (HECS) wing, 2004, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, USA.Google Scholar
3. Noor, A.K., Venneri, S.L., Paul, D.B. and Hopkins, M.A., Structures technology for future aerospace systems, Computers and Structures, 2000, 74, (5), pp 507–519.Google Scholar
4. Weiss, P., Wings of change — Shape-shifting aircraft may ply future skyways, Science News, 2003, pp 359–367.Google Scholar
5. Sanders, B., Eastep, F.E. and Forster, E., Aerodynamic and aeroelastic characteristics of wings with conformal control surfaces for morphing aircraft, J Aircr, 2003, 40, (1), pp 94–99.Google Scholar
6. Sanders, B., Joo, J.J. and Reich, G.W., Conceptual skin design for morphing aircraft, 2005, 16th International Conference on Adaptive Structures and Technologies (ICAST), Paris, France.Google Scholar
7. Joshi, S.P., Tidwell, Z., Crossley, W.A. and Ramakrishnan, S., Comparison of morphing wing strategies based upon aircraft performance impacts, 2004, 45th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics & Materials Conference, Palm Springs, CA, USA.Google Scholar
8. Bowman, J., Sanders, B., Cannon, B., Kudva, J., Joshi, S. and Weisshaar, T., Development of next generation morphing aircraft structures, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
9. Rudolph, P.K.C., High-lift systems on commercial subsonic airliners, 1996, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffet Field, CA, USA.Google Scholar
10. Bauer, C., Martin, W., Siegling, H.-F. and Schuermann, H., New structural approach to variable camber wing technology of transport aircraft, 1998, American Institute Aeronautics and Astronautics.Google Scholar
11. Wlezien, R.W., Horner, G.C., McGowan, A.R., Padula, S.L., Scott, M.A., Silcox, R.J. and Simpson, J.O., The aircraft morphing program. 1998, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
12. Roth, B.D. and Crossley, W.A., Applications of optimization techniques in the conceptual design of morphing aircraft, 2003, Third Annual Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations (ATIO), Denver, CO, USA.Google Scholar
13. Roth, B., Peters, C. and Crossley, W.A., Aircraft sizing with morphing as an independent variable: motivation, strategies and investigations, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
14. Spillman, J.J., The use of variable camber to reduce drag, weight and costs of transport aircraft, Aeronaut J, 1992, 96, (951), pp 1–9.Google Scholar
15. Bein, T., Hanselka, H. and Breitbach, E., Adaptive spoiler to control the transonic shock, Smart Mat and Struc, 2000, 9, (2), pp 141–148.Google Scholar
16. Kudva, J.N., Overview of the DARPA smart wing project, J Intell Mat Sys and Struc, 2004, 15, (4), pp 261–267.Google Scholar
17. Bartley-Cho, J.D., Wang, D.P., Martin, C.A., Kudva, J.N. and West, M.N., Development of high-rate, adaptive trailing edge control surface for the smart wing phase 2 wind tunnel model, J Intell Mat Sys and Struc, 2004, 15, (4), pp 279–291.Google Scholar
18. Gern, F.H., Inman, D.J. and Kapania, R.K., Structural and aeroelastic modeling of general planform wings with morphing airfoils, AIAA J, 2002, 40, (4), pp 628–637.Google Scholar
19. Gern, F.H., Inman, D.J. and Kapania, R.K., Computation of actuation power requirements for smart wings with morphing airfoils, AIAA J, 2005, 43, (12), pp 2481–2486.Google Scholar
20. Noor, A.K., Spearing, S.M., Adams, W.W. and Venneri, S.L., Frontiers of the material world, Aerospace America, 1998, 36, (4), pp 24–31.Google Scholar
21. Rodriguez, A.R., Morphing aircraft technology survey, 2007, 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibition, Reno, NV, USA.Google Scholar
22. The design of morphing aircraft, 2007, Aerospace Department, University of Bristol, http://www.aer.bris.ac.uk/research/morphing/morph-main.html.Google Scholar
23. Rao, P.R., Biomimetics, Sadhana — Academy Proceedings in Engineering Sciences, 2003, 28, (3-4), pp 657–676.Google Scholar
24. Ball, P., Life’s lessons in design, Nature, 2001, 409, (6818), pp 413–416.Google Scholar
25. John, G., Clements-Croome, D. and Jeronimidis, G., Sustainable building solutions: a review of lessons from the natural world, Building and Environment, 2005, 40, (3), pp 319–328.Google Scholar
26. Dew, J., TRIZ: a creative breeze for quality professionals (inventive problem solving theory), Quality Progress, 2006, 39, (1), pp 44–51.Google Scholar
27. Sampson, B., Inspired by nature, Professional Engineering, 2006, 19, (18), pp 39–40.Google Scholar
28. Menon, C., Ayre, M. and Ellery, A., Biomimetics — a new approach to space system design, ESA Bulletin, 2006, 125, pp 20–26, European Space Agency.Google Scholar
29. Trask, R.S., Williams, H.R. and Bond, I.P., Self-healing polymer composites: mimicking nature to enhance performance, Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 2007, 2, (1), pp 1–9.Google Scholar
30. Lakes, R., Materials with structural hierarchy, Nature, 1993, 361, (6412), pp 511–515.Google Scholar
31. Blondeau, J. and Pines, D.J., Wind tunnel testing of a morphing aspect ratio wing using an pneumatic telescopic spar, 2003, Second AIAA ‘Unmanned Unlimited’ Systems, Technologies, and Operations-Aerospace, Land, and Sea Conference and Workshop & Exhibition, San Diego, CA, USA.Google Scholar
32. Blondeau, J. and Pines, D.J., Pneumatic morphing aspect ratio wing, 2004, 45th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Palm Springs, CA, USA.Google Scholar
33. Bechert, D.W., Bruse, M., Hage, W. and Meyer, R., Fluid mechanics of biological surfaces and their technological application, Naturwissenschaften, 2000, 87, (4), pp 157–171.Google Scholar
34. Greven, H., Zanger, K. and Schwinger, G., Mechanical-properties of the skin of Xenopus-Laevis (Anura, Amphibia), J Morphology, 1995, 224, (1), pp 15–22.Google Scholar
35. Brackenbury, J.H., Wing folding and free-flight kinematics in Coleoptera (Insecta) — a comparative-study, J Zoology, 1994, 232, pp 253–283.Google Scholar
36. Toensmeier, P.A., Radical departure, Av Week and Space Tech, 2005, 162, (21), pp 72–73.Google Scholar
37. Jha, A.K. and Kudva, J.N., Morphing aircraft concepts, classifications, and challenges, 2004, Smart structures and materials and nondestructive evaluation for health monitoring and diagnostics conference, San Diego, CA, USA.Google Scholar
38. ILC Dover, Frederica, DE, USA, http://www.ilcdover.com.Google Scholar
39. Cadogan, D., Smith, T., Lee, R., Scarborough, S. and Graziosi, D., Inflatable and rigidizable wing components for unmanned aerial vehicles, 2003, American Institute Aeronautics and Astronautics, Norfolk, VA, USA.Google Scholar
40. Cadogan, D., Smith, T., Uhelsky, F. and MaCkusick, M., Morphing inflatable wing development for compact package unmanned aerial vehicles, 2004, American Institute Aeronautics and Astronautics, Reston.Google Scholar
41. Wilson, J.R., Morphing UAVs change the shape of warfare, Aerospace America, 2004, 42, (2), pp 28–29.Google Scholar
42. Bonnema, K.L. and Smith, S.B., AFTI/F-111 mission adaptive wing flight research program, 1988, Fourth AIAA Flight Test Conference, San Diego, CA, USA.Google Scholar
43. Kota, S., Hetrick, J.A. and Osborn, R.F., Adaptive structures: moving into the mainstream, Aerospace America, 2006, 44, (9), pp 16–18.Google Scholar
44. DeCamp, R.W. and Hardy, R., Mission adaptive wing research programme, Aircraft Engineering, 1981, 53, (1), pp 10–11.Google Scholar
45. Pastor, C., Joo, J.J., Sanders, B. and McCarty, R., Kinematically designed flexible skins for morphing aircraft, 2006, ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Chicago, IL, USA.Google Scholar
46. DeCamp, R.W. and Hardy, R., Mission adaptive wing advanced research concepts, 1984, AIAA (CP 849), 2088, New York, NY, USA.Google Scholar
47. Perry, B., Cole, S.R. and Miller, G.D., Summary of an active flexible wing program, J Aircr, 1995, 32, (1), pp 10–15.Google Scholar
48. Pendleton, E.W., Bessette, D., Field, P.B., Miller, G.D. and Griffin, K.E., Active aeroelastic wing flight research program: technical program and model analytical development, J Aircr, 2000, 37, (4), pp 554–561.Google Scholar
49. Pendleton, E., Flick, P., Paul, D., Voracek, D., Reichenbach, E. and Griffin, K., The X-53 a summary of the active aeroelastic wing flight research program, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
50. McGowan, A.-M.R., Cox, D.E., Lazos, B.S., Waszak, M.R., Raney, D.L., Siochi, E.J. and Pao, S.P., Biologically-inspired technologies, NASA’s Morphing Project, 2003, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
51. McGowan, A.-M.R., Washburn, A.E., Horta, L.G., Bryant, R.G., Cox, D.E., Siochi, E.J., Padula, S.L. and Holloway, N.M., Recent results from NASA’s Morphing Project, 2002, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
52. http://www.darpa.mil, 2007, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), Arlington, VA, USA.Google Scholar
53. Florance, J.P., Burner, A.W., Fleming, G.A., Hunter, C.A., Graves, S.S. and Martin, C.A., Contributions of the NASA Langley research center to the DARPA/AFRL/NASA/Northrop Grumman smart wing program, 2003, Norfolk, VA, USA.Google Scholar
54. http://www.dlr.de, 2007, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Germany.Google Scholar
55. Monner, H.P., Breitbach, E., Bein, T. and Hanselka, H., Design aspects of the adaptive wing — the elastic trailing edge and the local spoiler bump, Aeronaut J, 2000, 104, (1032), pp 89–95.Google Scholar
56. The morphing aircraft, The Dryden X-Press, NASA, http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Newsroom/X-Press/stories/043001/new_morph.html, 2007.Google Scholar
57. http://www.nasa.gov, 2007, NASA.Google Scholar
58. http://www.crgrp.net, 2007, Cornerstone Research Group.Google Scholar
59. http://www.flxsys.com, 2007, FlexSys.Google Scholar
60. http://www.lockheedmartin.com/skunkworks, 2007, Lockheed Martin Skunk Works.Google Scholar
61. Bye, D.R. and McClure, P.D., Design of a morphing vehicle, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
62. Love, M.H., Zink, P.S., Stroud, R.L., Bye, D.R. and Chase, C., Impact of actuation concepts on morphing aircraft structures, 2004, American Institute Aeronautics and Astronautics.Google Scholar
63. Love, M.H., Zink, P.S., Stroud, R.L., Bye, D.R., Rizk, S. and White, D., Demonstration of morphing technology through ground and wind tunnel tests, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
64. http://www.nextgenaero.com, 2007, NextGen Aeronautics.Google Scholar
65. Flanagan, J.S., Strutzenberg, R.C., Myers, R.B. and Rodrian, J.E., Development and flight testing of a morphing aircraft, the NextGen MFX-1, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
66. Andersen, G.R., Cowan, D.L. and Piatak, D.J., Aeroelastic modeling, analysis and testing of a morphing wing structure, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
67. Lawlor, M., The shape of wings to come, Signal Magazine, 2006, AFCEA.Google Scholar
68. Pitt, D.M., Dunne, J.P. and White, E.V., Design and test of a SMA powered adaptive aircraft inlet internal wall, 2002, 43rd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Denver, CO, USA.Google Scholar
69. Turner, T.L., Buehrle, R.D., Cano, R.J. and Fleming, G.A., Design, fabrication, and testing of SMA enabled adaptive chevrons for jet noise reduction, 2004, Smart Structures and Materials conference, San Diego, CA, USA.Google Scholar
70. Hargreaves, B., Material benefits, Professional Engineering, 2006, 19, (21), pp 22–23.Google Scholar
71. Turner, T.L., Lach, C.L. and Cano, R.J., Fabrication and characterization of SMA hybrid composites, 2001, SPIE-International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
72. Cornell morphing aircraft project, http://morphing.mae.cornell.edu/index.htm, 2007, Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Department, Cornell University.Google Scholar
73. http://www.cimss.vt.edu, 2007, Centre for Intelligent Material Systems and Structures (CIMSS), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.Google Scholar
74. http://128.227.42.147/morph/index.html, 2007, Center for Morphing Control, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida.Google Scholar
75. Megson, T.H.G., Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students, 1999, Third edition, Arnold, London, UK.Google Scholar
76. Timoshenko, S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, 1959, Second edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, USA.Google Scholar
77. Cloyd, J.S., Status of the United States Air Force’s more electric aircraft initiative, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, 1998, 13, (4) pp 17–22.Google Scholar
78. Yokozeki, T., Takeda, S.-I., Ogasawara, T. and Ishikawa, T., Mechanical properties of corrugated composites for candidate materials of flexible wing structures, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2006, 37, (10), pp 1578–1586.Google Scholar
79. Keihl, M.M., Bortolin, R.S., Sanders, B., Joshi, S. and Tidwell, Z., Mechanical properties of shape memory polymers for morphing aircraft applications, 2005, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
80. Callister, W.D.J., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 2006, Seventh edition, Wiley.Google Scholar
81. Kikuta, M.T., Mechanical properties of candidate materials for morphing wings, 2003, p 123, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.Google Scholar
82. Kapps, M., Smart-material mechanisms as actuation alternatives for aerospace robotics and automation, 2006, International Space Development Conference, Los Angeles, CA, USA.Google Scholar
83. Evans, K.E. and Alderson, A., Auxetic materials: functional materials and structures from lateral thinking, Advanced Materials, 2000, 12, (9) pp 617–628.Google Scholar
84. Grima, J.N., Gatt, R., Ravirala, N., Alderson, A. and Evans, K.E., Negative Poisson’s ratios in cellular foam materials, Materials Science and Engineering A, 2006, 423, (1-2), pp 214–218.Google Scholar
85. Alderson, K.L., Simkins, V.R., Coenen, V.L., Davies, P.J., Alderson, A. and Evans, K.E., How to Make Auxetic Fibre Reinforced Composites, 2005, Wiley-VCH, Poznan-Bedlewo, Poland.Google Scholar
86. Bornengo, D., Scarpa, F. and Remillat, C., Evaluation of hexagonal chiral structure for morphine airfoil concept, J Aero Eng, 2005, 219, (3), pp 185–192, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G.Google Scholar
87. Wei, G. and Edwards, S.F., Auxeticity windows for composites, Physica A, 1998, 258, (1-2), pp 5–10.Google Scholar
88. Olympio, K.R. and Gandhi, F., Zero-v cellular honeycomb flexible skins for one-dimensional wing morphing, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
89. http://www.hexcel.com, 2007, Hexcel, Dublin, CA, USA.Google Scholar
90. Vincent, J.F.V., Deployable structures in nature: potential for biomimicking, J Mech Eng Sci, 2000, 214, (1), pp 1–10, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C.Google Scholar
91. Seboldt, W., Klimke, M., Leipold, M., and Hanowski, N., European sail tower SPS concept, Acta Astronautica, 2001, 48, (5-12), pp 785–792.Google Scholar
92. http://www.invent-gmbh.de, 2007, Invent, Braunschweig, Germany.Google Scholar
93. Sickinger, C., Herbeck, L. and Breitbach, E., Structural engineering on deployable CFRP booms for a solar propelled sailcraft, Acta Astronautica, 2006, 58, (4), pp 185–196.Google Scholar
94. Unckenbold, W.F., Eiden, M.J., Herbeck, L., Leipold, M., Schoppinger, C. and Sickinger, C., Boom deployment mechanism for large deployable antennas, 2002, 25th ESA Antenna Workshop on Satellite Technology, ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
95. Vendura, G.J., Malone, P. and Crawford, L., Novel, Light Weight Solar Array: Comparison with Conventional Systems, 1993, IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, USA.Google Scholar
96. http://www.st.northropgrumman.com/astro-aerospace, 2007, Astro Aerospace, Carpinteria, CA, USA.Google Scholar
97. http://www.sener.es, 2007, Sener, Spain.Google Scholar
98. De Focatiis, D.S.A. and Guest, S.D., Deployable membranes designed from folding tree leaves, Math Phys and Eng Sci, 2002, 360, (1791), pp 227–238, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London Series.Google Scholar
99. Perkins, D.A., Reed, J.L. and Havens, E., Morphing wing structures for loitering air vehicles, 2004, American Institute Aeronautics and Astronautics.Google Scholar
100. http://www.corex-honeycomb.com, 2007, Corex Honeycomb, Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire, UK.Google Scholar
101. http://composite.about.com/library/weekly/aa081197.htm, 2007, About: Composites, New York, USA.Google Scholar
102. Yee, J.C.H. and Pellegrino, S., Folding of woven composite structures. Composites Part A: Applied Sci and Manuf 2005, 36, (2 SPEC ISS), pp 273–278.Google Scholar
103. Hawkins, G., O’brien, M. and Zaldivar, R., Machine-augmented composites, 2002, American Institute Aeronautics and Astronautics.Google Scholar
104. Mollerick, R., New millenium inflatable structures technology, 1997, Mechanical Engineering Branch, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.Google Scholar
105. Gorinevsky, D. and Hyde, T.T., Adaptive membrane for large lightweight space telescopes, 2002, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
106. Marks, P., The next 100 years of flight — part one & two, 2003, NewScientists.com news service.Google Scholar
107. http://www.raytheon.com, 2007, Raytheon.Google Scholar
108. Ursache, N.M., Keane, A.J. and Bressloff, N.W., Design of postbuckled spinal structures for airfoil camber and shape control. AIAA J, 2006, 44, (12), pp 3115–3124.Google Scholar
109. Reich, G.W., Sanders, B. and Joo, J.J., Development of skins for morphing aircraft applications via topology optimization, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
110. Potter, K.D. and Wisnom, M.R.. Composites of extreme anisotropy initial experiments, Plastics, Rubber and Composites, 2002, 31, (5), pp 226–234.Google Scholar
111. Veronda, D.R. and Westmann, R.A., Mechanical characterization of skin-finite deformations, J Biomechanics, 1970, 3, (1), pp 111–124.Google Scholar
112. Peel, L.D., Jensen, D.W. and Suzumori, K., Batch fabrication of fiber-reinforced elastomer prepreg, J Advanced Materials, 1998, 30, (3), pp 3–10.Google Scholar
113. Murray, G., Gandhi, F. and Bakis, C., Flexible matrix composite skins for one-dimensional wing morphing, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
114. Tamai, M., Wang, Z., Rajagopalan, G., Hu, H. and He, G., Aerodynamic performance of a corrugated dragonfly airfoil compared with smooth airfoils at low Reynolds numbers, 2007, 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibition, Reno, NV, USA.Google Scholar
115. Butler, G., Investigation of corrugated composite laminates for use in morphing wing skin applications, 2007, Department of Aerospace, University of Bristol.Google Scholar
116. Forterre, Y., Skotheim, J.M., Dumals, J. and Mahadevan, L., How the Venus flytrap snaps, Nature, 2005, 433, (7024), pp 421–425.Google Scholar
117. Hyer, M.W., Calculations of the room-temperature shapes of unsym-metric laminates. J Composite Materials, July 1981, 15, pp 296–310.Google Scholar
118. Hyer, M.W., Some observations on the cured shape of thin unsymmetric laminates. J Composite Materials, March 1981, 15, pp 175–194.Google Scholar
119. Hyer, M.W., The room-temperature shapes of 4-layer unsymmetric cross-ply laminates. J Composite Materials, July 1982, 16, pp 318–340.Google Scholar
120. Dano, M.L. and Hyer, M.W., Thermally-induced deformation behavior of unsymmetric laminates. Int J Solids and Structures, 1998, 35, (17), pp 2101–2120.Google Scholar
121. Dano, M.L. and Hyer, M.W., Snap-through of unsymmetric fiber-reinforced composite laminates. Int J Solids and Structures, 2002, 39, (1), pp 175–198.Google Scholar
122. Kebadze, E., Guest, S.D. and Pellegrino, S., Bistable prestressed shell structures. Int J Solids and Structures, 2004, 41, (11-12), pp 2801–2820.Google Scholar
123. Hufenbach, W., Gude, M. and Kroll, L., Design of multistable composites for application in adaptive structures, Composites Science and Technology, 2002, 62, (16), pp 2201–2207.Google Scholar
124. Iqbal, K. and Pellegrino, S., Bi-stable composite shells, 2000, American Inst Aeronautics and Astronautics.Google Scholar
125. Weaver, P.M., On beneficial anisotropic effects in composite structures, 2002, 43rd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Denver, CO, USA.Google Scholar
126. Potter, K., Weaver, P., Seman, A.A. and Shah, S., Phenomena in the bifurcation of unsymmetric composite plates. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2007, 38, (1) pp 100–106.Google Scholar
127. Potter, K.D. and Weaver, P.M., A concept for the generation of out-of-plane distortion from tailored FRP laminates, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2004, 35, (12), pp 1353–1361.Google Scholar
128. Mattioni, F., Gatto, A., Weaver, P.M. and Friswell, M.I., The application of residual stresses tailoring of snap-through composites for variable sweep wings, 2006, 47th AIAA/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Newport, RI, USA.Google Scholar
129. Diaconu, C.G., Weaver, P.M. and Mattioni, F., Solutions for morphing airfoil sections using bi-stable laminated composite structures, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
130. Mattioni, F., Weaver, P.M., Friswell, M.I. and Potter, K.D., Modelling and applications of thermally induced multistable composites with piecewise variation of lay-up in the planform, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
131. Norman, A.D., Guest, S.D. and Seffen, K.A., Novel Multistable Corrugated Structures, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
132. Ramrakhyani, D.S., Lesieutre, G.A., Frecker, M. and Bharti, S. Aircraft structural morphing using tendon-actuated compliant cellular trusses, J Aircr, 2005, 42, (6) pp 1615–1621.Google Scholar
133. Varma, K.B.R., Morphology and dielectric properties of fish scales, Current Science, 1990, 59, (8), pp 420–422.Google Scholar
134. Long, J.H., Hale, M.E., McHenry, M.J. and Westneat, M.W. Functions of fish skin: Flexural stiffness and steady swimming of longnose gar Lepisosteus osseus, J Experimental Biology, 1996, 199, (10), pp 2139–2151.Google Scholar
135. Bechert, D.W., Bruse, M. and Hage, W., Experiments with three-dimensional riblets as an idealized model of shark skin, Experiments in Fluids, 2000, 28, (5), pp 403–412.Google Scholar
136. Garner, L.J., Wilson, L.N., Lagoudas, D.C. and Rediniotis, O.K., Development of a shape memory alloy actuated biomimetic vehicle, Smart Materials and Structures, 2000, 9, (5), pp 673–683.Google Scholar
137. Rediniotis, O.K., Wilson, L.N., Lagoudas, D.C. and Khan, M.M., Development of a shape-memory-alloy actuated biomimetic hydrofoil. J Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 2002, 13, (1), pp 35–49.Google Scholar
138. Gordon, B.O. and Clark, W.W., Morphing Structures by way of Stiffness Variations, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
139. Simpson, J.O., Wise, S.A., Bryant, R.G., Cano, R.J., Gates, T.S., Hinkley, J.A., Rogowski, R.S. and Whitley, K.S., Innovative materials for aircraft morphing, 1998, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
140. Lendlein, A. and Kelch, S., Shape-memory polymers, Angewandte Chemie – International Edition, 2002, 41, (12), pp 2035–2057.Google Scholar
141. Balta, J.A., Bosia, F., Michaud, V., Dunkel, G., Botsis, J. and Manson, J.A., Smart composites with embedded shape memory alloy actuators and fibre Bragg grating sensors: activation and control, Smart Materials & Structures, 2005, 14, (4), pp 457–465.Google Scholar
142. Tzou, H.S., Lee, H.J. and Arnold, S.M., Smart materials, precision sensors/actuators, smart structures, and structronic systems, Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures, 2004, 11, (4-5), pp 367–393.Google Scholar
143. Pons, J.L., Emerging Actuator Technologies — A Micromechatronic Approach, 2005, John Wiley & Sons, UK.Google Scholar
144. Zheng, Y.J., Cui, L.S. and Schrooten, J., Basic design guidelines for SMA/epoxy smart composites, Materials Science and Engineering A, 2005, 390, (1-2), pp 139–143.Google Scholar
145. Dano, M.L. and Hyer, M.W., SMA-induced snap-through of unsymmetric fiber-reinforced composite laminates, Int J Solids and Structures, 2003, 40, (22) pp 5949–5972.Google Scholar
146. Barrett, R. and Gross, R.S., Super-active shape-memory alloy composites, Smart Materials & Structures, 1996, 5, (3), pp 255–260.Google Scholar
147. Lendlein, A., Jiang, H.Y., Junger, O. and Langer, R., Light-induced shape-memory polymers, Nature, 2005, 434, (7035), pp 879–882.Google Scholar
148. Bellin, I., Kelch, S., Langer, R. and Lendlein, A., Polymeric triple-shape materials, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2006, 103, (48), pp 18043–18047.Google Scholar
149. Perkins, D.A., Reed, J.L. and Havens, E., Adaptive wing structures, 2004, Smart Structures and Materials and Nondestructive Evaluation for Health Monitoring and Diagnostics conference, San Diego, CA, USA, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
150. Reed, J.L., Hemmelgarn, C.D., Pelley, B.M. and Havens, E., Adaptive wing structures, 2005, Smart Structures and Materials and Nondestructive Evaluation for Health Monitoring and Diagnostics conference, San Diego, CA, USA, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
151. Belfourd, D.T. and Tsang, W.M., An investigation into shape memory materials, 2006, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol.Google Scholar
152. Henry, C. and McKnight, G., Cellular variable stiffness materials for ultra-large reversible deformations in reconfigurable structures, 2006, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
153. McKnight, G. and Henry, C., Variable stiffness materials for reconfigurable surface applications, 2005, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
154. The Intelligent Material DIAPLEX, http://www.diaplex.com, 2007, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.Google Scholar
155. Tupper, M., Munshi, N., Beavers, F., Gall, K., Mikuls, M. and Meink, T., Developments in elastic memory composite materials for spacecraft deployable structures, 2001, IEEE.Google Scholar
156. Lake, M.S. and Campbell, D., The fundamentals of designing deployable structures with elastic memory composites, 2004, IEEE.Google Scholar
157. http://www.ctd-materials.com, 2007, Composite Technology Development.Google Scholar
158. Abrahamson, E.R., Lake, M.S., Munshi, N.A. and Gall, K., Shape memory mechanics of an elastic memory composite resin, J Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 2003, 14, (10), pp 623–632.Google Scholar
159. Arzberger, S.C., Tupper, M.L., Lake, M.S., Barrett, R., Mallick, K., Hazelton, C., Francis, W., Keller, P.N., Campbell, D., Feucht, S., Codell, D., Wintergerst, J., Adams, L., Mallioux, J., Denis, R., White, K., Long, M., Munshi, N.A. and Gall, K., Elastic memory composites (EMC) for deployable industrial and commercial applications, 2005, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
160. Hulse, M.J., Campbell, D., Ryan, K.C.J., Haynes, M.M. and Francis, W., Nonlinear effects in unidirectional elastic memory composite material, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
161. http://www.polyu.edu.hk, 2007, Hong Kong Polytechnic University — Institute of Textile and Clothing.Google Scholar
162. http://www.tfe.gatech.edu, 2007, School of Polymer, Textile and Fiber Engineering, Atlanta, GA, USA.Google Scholar
163. Ji, F.L., Zhu, Y., Hu, J.L., Liu, Y., Yeung, L.Y. and Ye, G.D., Smart polymer fibers with shape memory effect, Smart Materials & Structures, 2006, 15, (6), pp 1547–1554.Google Scholar
164. Zhu, Y., Hu, J., Yeung, K.W., Choi, K.F., Liu, Y.Q. and Liem, H.M., Effect of cationic group content on shape memory effect in segmented polyurethane cationomer, J Applied Polymer Science, 2007, 103, (1) pp 545–556.Google Scholar
165. Tellinen, J., Suorsa, I., Jaaskelainen, A., Aaltio, I. and Ullakko, K., Basic properties of magnetic shape memory actuators, 2002, Eighth Actuator conference, Bremen, Germany.Google Scholar
166. Sozinov, A., Likhachev, A.A., Lanska, N. and Ullakko, K., Giant magnetic-field-induced strain in NiMnGa seven-layered martensitic phase, Applied Physics Letters, 2002, 80, (10), pp 1746.Google Scholar
167. Suorsa, I., Pagounis, E. and Ullakko, K., Magnetization dependence on strain in the Ni-Mn-Ga magnetic shape memory material, Applied Physics Letters, 2004, 84, (23), pp 4658–4660.Google Scholar
168. Suorsa, I., Tellinen, J., Ullakko, K. and Pagounis, E., Voltage generation induced by mechanical straining in magnetic shape memory materials, J Applied Physics, 2004, 95, (12), pp 8054–8058.Google Scholar
169. Ham-Su, R., Healey, J.P., Underhill, R.S., Farrell, S.P., Cheng, L.M., Hyatt, C.V., Rogge, R. and Gharghouri, M.A. Fabrication of magnetic shape memory alloy/polymer composites, Smart Structures and Materials, 2005, International Society for Optical Engineering.Google Scholar
170. Hosoda, H., Takeuchi, S., Inamura, T. and Wakashima, K., Material design and shape memory properties of smart composites composed of polymer and ferromagnetic shape memory alloy particles, Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 2004, 5, (4), pp 503–509.Google Scholar
171. Mohr, R., Kratz, K., Weigel, T., Lucka-Gabor, M., Moneke, M. and Lendlein, A., Initiation of shape-memory effect by inductive heating of magnetic nanoparticles in thermoplastic polymers, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2006, 103, (10), pp 3540–3545.Google Scholar
172. Vejpravova, J.P., Sechovsky, V., Niznansky, D., Plocek, J., Hutlova, A. and Rehspringer, J.-L., Superparamagnetism of co-ferrite nanoparticles, 2005, 14th Annual Conference Week of Doctoral Students (WDS), Prague, Czech Republic.Google Scholar
173. Tobushi, H., Hara, H., Yamada, E. and Hayashi, S. Thermomechanical properties in a thin film of shape memory polymer of polyurethane series, Smart Materials & Structures, 1996, 5, (4), pp 483–491.Google Scholar
174. Davis, S., Caldwell, D.G., Tsagarakis, N. and Canderle, J., Enhanced modelling and performance in braided pneumatic muscle actuators, Int J of Robotics Research, 2003, 22, (3-4), pp 213–227.Google Scholar
175. Ramasamy, R., Juhari, M.R., Mamat, M.R., Yaacob, S., Nasir, N.F.M. and Sugisaka, M., An application of finite element modelling to pneumatic artificial muscle, American J of Appl Sci, 2005, 2, (11), pp 1504–1508.Google Scholar
176. Ramasamy, R., Juhari, M.R. and Sugisaka, M., Conceptual view of pneumatic artificial muscle, 2005, First Intenational Workshop on Artificial Life and Robotics (AROB), Kangar, Malaysia.Google Scholar
177. Klute, G.K., Czerniecki, J.M. and Hannaford, B., McKibben artificial muscles: Pneumatic actuators with biomechanical intelligence, 1999, IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM), pp 221–226.Google Scholar
178. Vanderborght, B., Verrelst, B., Van Ham, R. and Lefeber, D., Controlling a bipedal walking robot actuated by pleated pneumatic artificial muscles, Robotica, 2006, 24, (4), pp 401–410.Google Scholar
179. Vanderborght, B., Verrelst, B., Van Ham, R., Naudet, J., Vermeulen, J., Lefeber, D. and Daerden, F., LUCY, a bipedal walking robot with pneumatic artificial muscles, 2004, IEEE Mechatronics & Robotics Conference, Aachen, Germany.Google Scholar
180. Klute, G.K. and Hannaford, B., Fatigue characteristics of McKibben artificial muscle actuators, 1998, IEEE.Google Scholar
181. Klute, G.K. and Hannaford, B., Accounting for elastic energy storage in McKibben artificial muscle actuators, Transactions of the ASME. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control, 2000, 122, (2), pp 386–388.Google Scholar
182. Devereux, M.J. and Tyler, D., Pneumatic artificial muscles, 2006, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol.Google Scholar
183. Sater, J. and Main, J., Plants and mechanical motion-nastic materials at DARPA, 2004, 15th International Conference on Adaptive Structures and Technologies (ICAST), Bar Harbor, Maine, USA.Google Scholar
184. Giurgiutiu, V., Matthews, L., Leo, D.J. and Sundaresan, V.B., Concepts for power and energy analysis in nastic structures, 2005, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.Google Scholar
185. Matthews, L., Sundaresan, V.B., Giurgiutiu, V. and Leo, D.J., Bioenergetics and mechanical actuation analysis with membrane transport experiments for use in biomimetic nastic structures, J Materials Research, 2006, 21, (8), pp 2058–2067.Google Scholar
186. Philen, M., Shan, Y., Bakis, C.E., Wang, K.W. and Rahn, C.D., Variable stiffness adaptive structures utilizing hydraulically Pressurized flexible matrix composites with valve control, 2006, 47th AIAA/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Newport, RI, USA.Google Scholar
187. Shan, Y., Flexible matrix composites: Dynamic characterization, modelling, and potential for driveshaft applications, 2006, Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
188. Shan, Y. and Bakis, C.E., Flexible matrix composite actuators, 2005, 20th Annual Technical Conference of Amercian Society for Composites, Philapelphia, PA, USA.Google Scholar
189. Shan, Y., Philen, M.P., Bakis, C.E., Wang, K.-W. and Rahn, C.D., Nonlinear-elastic finite axisymmetric deformation of flexible matrix composite membranes under internal pressure and axial force, Composites Science and Technology, 2006, 66, (15), pp 3053–3063.Google Scholar
190. Philen, M., Shan, Y., Wang, K.W., Bakis, C.E. and Rahn, C.D., Fluidic flexible matrix composites for the tailoring of variable stiffness adaptive structures, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
191. Philen, M.K., Shan, Y., Prakash, P., Wang, K.W., Rahn, C.D., Zydney, A.L. and Bakis, C.E., Fibrillar network adaptive structure with ion-transport actuation, J Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 2007, 18, (4), pp 323–334.Google Scholar
192. Campanile, L.F. and Anders, S., Aerodynamic and aeroelastic amplification in adaptive belt-rib airfoils, Aerospace Science and Tech, 2005, 9, (1), pp 55–63.Google Scholar
193. Campanile, L.F. and Sachau, D., Belt-rib concept: a structronic approach to variable camber. J Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 2000, 11, (3), pp 215–224.Google Scholar
194. McLendon, W.R., Investigation into wing structure and composite fabrication, 2005, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University.Google Scholar
195. Wootton, R.J., The mechanical design of insect wings, Scientific American, 1990, 263, (5), pp 114–20.Google Scholar
196. Wootton, R.J., Functional-morphology of insect wings, Annual Review of Entomology, 1992, 37, pp 113–140.Google Scholar
197. Wootton, R.J., Support and deformability in insect wings, J Zoology, April 1981, 193, pp 447–468.Google Scholar
198. Baker, D., Friswell, M.I. and Lieven, N.A.J., Active truss structures for wing morphing, 2005, ECCOMAS Thematic Conference on Smart Structures and Materials, Lisbon, Portugal.Google Scholar
199. Hutchinson, R.G., Wicks, N., Evans, A.G., Fleck, N.A. and Hutchinson, J.W., Kagome plate structures for actuation, Int J Solids and Structures, 2003, 40, (25), pp 6969–6980.Google Scholar
200. Trease, B.P. and Kota, S., Synthesis of adaptive and controllable compliant systems with embedded actuators and sensors, 2006, ASME International Design Engineering Technical Conferences & Computers and Information in Engineering Conference, Philadelphia, PA, USA.Google Scholar
201. Lu, K.J. and Kota, S., Design of compliant mechanisms for morphing structural shapes, J Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 2003, 14, (6), pp 379–391.Google Scholar
202. Weiss, P., Ahead of the curve: Novel morphing wing may reduce aircraft’s fuel use, Science News, 2006, pp 406–407.Google Scholar
203. Hetrick, J.A., Osborn, R.F., Kota, S., Flick, P.M. and Paul, D.B., Flight testing of misson adaptive compliant wing, 2007, 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar