Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T15:19:32.327Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Through ruminant nutrition to human health: role of fatty acids

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 October 2016

G. Savoini ,
G. Farina ,
V. Dell’Orto  and
D. Cattaneo
G. Savoini*
Affiliation:
Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie per la salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano, Italy
G. Farina
Affiliation:
Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie per la salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano, Italy
V. Dell’Orto
Affiliation:
Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie per la salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano, Italy
D. Cattaneo
Affiliation:
Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie per la salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano, Italy
*
† E-mail: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

In the last decades, a new awareness on human nutrition has increased and the concept of ‘food’ has changed from ‘source of nutrients for body’s needs’ to ‘health promoter’. Fruits and vegetables have always been considered beneficial for human health. More recent studies have demonstrated that bioactive components are also present in animal-derived foods, such as milk and dairy products. A broader concept of ‘nutritional safety’ implies the knowledge of how the nutrients contained in animal-derived foods positively affect human health, and how to increase their content. The improvement of dairy products fatty acid (FA) composition can involve strategies in animal nutrition. This review aims to discuss the role of FAs supplementation in ameliorating milk fat composition, environmental impact and animal health. In particular, we have focused on the role of n-3 and CLA FAs and how animal nutrition strategies can positively affect both human and animal health. Several studies have demonstrated that through adequate nutritional strategies is possible to manipulate and improve FA composition of milk and derived products (cheese). Moreover, feeding animals with n-3 FAs has proved to reduce emission of methane (CH4), but further nutritional strategies are needed in order to address this crucial environmental issue. In relation to animal health, n-3 FAs have been proved to modulate immune and inflammatory response in dairy ruminants. Recent studies have addressed the potential programming effects of increased maternal n-3 polyunsaturated FAs intake on offspring’s immune functions showing that feeding bioactive FAs to pregnant animals can affect progeny health status.

Keywords

ruminantdairy productslipid sourcespolyunsaturated fatty acidshuman health
Type
Full Paper
Information
Advances in Animal Biosciences , Volume 7 , Special Issue 2: Proceedings of the EAAP-European Federation of Animal Science in association with ALPA , October 2016 , pp. 200 - 207
Copyright
© The Animal Consortium 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agazzi, A, Cattaneo, D, Dell’Orto, V, Moroni, P, Bonizzi, L, Pasotto, D, Bronzo, V and Savoini, G 2004. Effect of administration of fish oil on aspects of cell-mediated immune response in periparturient dairy goats. Small Ruminant Research 55, 77–83.Google Scholar
Agazzi, A, Invernizzi, G, Campagnoli, A, Ferroni, M, Fanelli, A, Cattaneo, D, Galmozzi, A, Crestani, M, Dell’Orto, V and Savoini, G 2010. Effect of different dietary fats on hepatic gene expression in transition dairy goats. Small Ruminant Research 93, 31–40.Google Scholar
Akalin, S, Gonc, S and Unal, G 2006. Functional properties of bioactive components of milk fat in metabolism. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 5, 194–197.Google Scholar
Allender, S, Scarborough, P, Peto, V, Raynor, M, Leal, J, Luengo-Fernandez, R and Gray, A 2008. European Cardiovascular Disease Statistics, 2008 edition. European Heart Network, Brussels.Google Scholar
Bauman, DE and Griinari, JM 2003. Nutritional regulation of milk fat synthesis. Annual Review of Nutrition 23, 203–227.Google Scholar
Bauman, DE, Mather, IH, Wall, RJ and Lock, AL 2006. Major advantages associated with the biosynthesis of milk. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 1235–1243.Google Scholar
Bayat, A, Kairenius, P, Stefanski, T, Leskinen, H, Comtet-Marre, S and Forano, E 2015. Effect of camelina oil or live yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) on ruminal methan production, rumen fermentation, and milk fatty acid composition in lactating cows fed grass silage diets. Journal of Dairy Science 98, 3166–3181.Google Scholar
Bellisle, F, Diplock, AT, Hornstra, G, Koletzko, B, Roberfroid, M, Salminen, S and Saris, WHM 1998. Functional food science in Europe. British Journal of Nutrition 80 (suppl. 1), 3S–4S.Google Scholar
Benjamin, S and Spener, F 2009. Conjugated linoleic acids as functional food: an insight into their health benefits. Nutrition & Metabolism 6, 36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, L, Leroux, C, Rouel, J, Delavaud, C, Shingfield, KJ and Chilliard, Y 2015. Effect of extruded linseeds alone or in combination with fish oil on intake, milk production, plasma metabolite concentrations and milk fatty acid composition in lactating goats. Animal 9, 810–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, L, Rouel, J, Leroux, C, Ferlay, A, Faulconnier, Y, Legrand, P and Chilliard, Y 2005. Mammary lipid metabolism and milk fatty acid secretion in alpine goats fed vegetable lipids. Journal of Dairy Science 88, 1478–1489.Google Scholar
Bhat, ZF and Bhat, H 2011. Milk and dairy products as functional foods: a review. International Journal of Dairy Science 6, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boeckaert, C, Vlaeminck, B, Fievez, V, Maignien, L, Dijkstra, J and Boon, N. 2008. Accumulation of trans C18:1 Fatty acids in the rumen after dietary algal supplementation is associated with changes in the Butyrivibrio community. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74, 6923–6930.Google Scholar
Bronzo, V, Puricelli, M, Agazzi, A, Invernizzi, G, Ferroni, M, Moroni, P and Savoini, G 2010. Effects of protected fish oil in the diet of periparturient dairy goats on phenotypic variation in blood and milk leukocytes. Animal 4, 1510–1517.Google Scholar
Buccioni, A, Decandia, M, Minieri, S, Molle, G and Cabiddu, A 2012. Lipid metabolism in the rumen: new insights on lipolysis and biohydrogenation with an emphasis on the role of endogenous plant factors. Animal Feed Science and Technology 174, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buccioni, A, Pauselli, M, Viti, C, Minieri, S, Pallara, G, Roscini, V, Rapaccini, S, Trabalza Marinucci, M, Lupi, P, Conte, G and Mele, M 2015. Milk fatty acid composition, rumen microbial population, and animal performances in response to diets rich in linoleic acid supplemented with chestnut or quebracho tannins in dairy ewes. Journal of Dairy Science 98, 1145–1156.Google Scholar
Calder, P 2004. N-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: evidence explained and mechanisms explored. Clinical Science 107, 1–11.Google Scholar
Calder, PC 2012. Long-chain fatty acids and inflammation. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 71, 284–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC 2013. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: nutrition or pharmacology? British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 75, 645–662.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calon, F and Cole, G 2007. Neuroprotective action of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids against neurodegenerative diseases: evidence from animal studies. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 77, 287–293.Google Scholar
Cattaneo, D, Dell’Orto, V, Varisco, G, Agazzi, A and Savoini, G 2006. Enrichment in n-3 fatty acids of goat’s colostrum and milk by maternal fish oil supplementation. Small Ruminant Research 64, 22–29.Google Scholar
Cattaneo, D, Ferroni, M, Caprino, F, Moretti, V, Agazzi, A, Invernizzi, G and Savoini, G 2010. Dietary fats in transition dairy goats: effects on milk FA composition. In Energy and protein metabolism and nutrition (ed. GM Crovetto), pp. 6–10. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Cattaneo, D, Ferroni, M, Caprino, F, Moretti, V, Agazzi, A and Savoini, G 2012. Temporal variations of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in goat’s milk. Special Issue of the International Dairy Federation 1201, 161–164.Google Scholar
Caughey, GE, Mantzioris, E, Gibson, RA, Cleland, LG and James, MJ 1996. The effect on human tumor necrosis factor and interleukin 1b production of diets enriched in n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oil or fish oil. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 116–122.Google Scholar
Cerri, RLA, Santos, JEP, Juchem, SO, Galvao, KN and Chebel, RC 2004. Timed artificial insemination with estradiol cypionate or insemination at estrus in high-producing dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 87, 3704–3715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheli, F and Dell’Orto, V 2015. La sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale. Biologi Italiani 2, 24–29.Google Scholar
Contreras, GA, Mattmiller, SA, Raphael, W, Gancy, JC and Sordillo, LM 2012. Enhanced n-3 phospholipid content reduces inflammatory responses in bovine endothelial cells. Journal of Dairy Science 95, 7137–7150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, HW 1996. Fatty acid desaturation and chain elongation in eukaryotes. In Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes (ed. DE Vance and J Vance), pp. 129–152. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Coppa, M, Verdier-Metz, I, Ferlay, A, Pradel, P, Didienne, R, Farruggia, A, Montel, MC and Martin, B 2011. Effect of different grazing systems on upland pastures compared with hay diet on cheese sensory properties evaluated at different ripening times. International Dairy Journal 21, 815–822.Google Scholar
Cruz-Hernandez, C, Kramer, JKG, Kennelly, JJ, Glimm, DR, Sorensen, BM, Okine, EK, Goonewardene, LA and Weselake, RJ 2007. Evaluating the conjugated linoleic acid and trans 18.1 isomers in milk fat of dairy cows fed increasing amounts of sunflower oil and a constant level of fish oil. Journal of Dairy Science 90, 3786–3801.Google Scholar
Cullens, FM, Staples, CR, Bilby, TR, Silvestre, FT, Bartolome, J, Sozzi, A, Badinga, L, Thatcher, WW and Arthington, JD 2004. Effect of timing of initiation of fat supplementation on milk production, plasma hormones and metabolites, and conception rates of Holstein cows in summer. Journal of Dairy Science 86, 308.Google Scholar
De Caterina, R and Libby, P 1996. Control of endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecules by fatty acids. Lipids 31, S57–S63.Google Scholar
De Marchi, FE, Palin, M-F, dos Santos, GT, Lima, LS, Benchaar, C and Petit, HV 2015. Flax meal supplementation on the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the expression of oxidative stress- and lipogenic-related genes in dairy cows infused with sunflower oil in the abomasum. Animal Feed Science and Technology 199, 41–50.Google Scholar
Dewhurst, RJ, Shingfield, KJ, Lee, MRF and Scollan, ND 2006. Increasing the concentrations of beneficial polyunsaturated fatty acids in milk produced by dairy cows in high-forage systems. Animal Feed Science and Technology 131, 168–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dirandeh, E, Towhidi, A, Zeinoaldini, S, Ganjkhanlou, M, Ansari Pirsaraei, Z and Fouladi-Nashta, A 2014. Effects of different polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementations during the postpartum periods of early lactating dairy cows on milk yield, metabolic responses, and reproductive performances. Journal of Animal Science 91, 713–721.Google Scholar
Doreau, MM and Ferlay, A 2015. Linseed: a valuable feedstuff for ruminants. Oilseeds & fats Crops and Lipids, OCL, DOI: 10.1051/ocl/2015042.Google Scholar
European Food Safety Authority Journal 2012. Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA). EFSA Journal 10, 2815. 1–48.Google Scholar
Elsanhoty, R, Zaghlol, A and Hassanein, AH 2009. The manufacture of low fat labneh containing barley β-glucan 1-chemical composition, microbiological evaluation and sensory properties. Current Research in Dairy Sciences 1, 1–12.Google Scholar
Endres, S, Ghorbani, R, Kelley, VE, Georgilis, K, Lonnemann, G, van der Meer, JMW, Cannon, JG, Rogers, TS, Klempner, MS, Weber, PC, Schaeffer, EJ, Wolff, SM and Dinarello, CA 1989. The effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells. The New England Journal of Medicine 320, 265–271.Google Scholar
Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization 1993. Fats and oils in human nutrition. Report of a joint expert consultation. FAO Food and Nutrition, Paper 57, Rome, Italy.Google Scholar
Ferroni, M, Cattaneo, D, Agazzi, A, Caputo, JM, Invernizzi, G, Bellagamba, F, Caprino, F and Savoini, G 2015. Colostrum, n-3 FA status and immune response of newborn kids as influenced by maternal lipid supplementation. Italian Journal of Animal Science 14 (suppl. 1), 154.Google Scholar
Ferroni, F, Cattaneo, D, Agazzi, A, Invernizzi, G, Bellagamba, F, Caprino, F, Moretti, VM and Savoini, G 2014. Effects of perinatal dietary lipid supplementation on fatty acid status of dairy goats and kids. In Book of Abstracts of the 65th Annual Meeting of the European Federation of Animal Science. Book of Abstracts No. 20. 25–29 August 2014, Copenhagen, Denmark (ed. EAAP Scientific Committee, Simianer H, Van Duinkerken G, Spoolder H, Vestergaard M, Bernues A, Klopcic M, Bodin L, Lauridsen C, Miraglia N and Pollott G), p. 357. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Franklin, ST, Martin, KR, Baer, RJ, Schingoethe, DJ and Hippen, AR 1999. Dietary marine algae (schizochytrium sp.) increases concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, conjugated linoleic acid, docosahexanoic acid, and transvaccenic acid of milk in dairy cow. Journal of Nutrition 129, 2048–2052.Google Scholar
Funaki, M 2009. Saturated fatty acids and insulin resistance. Journal of Medical Investigation 56, 88–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Givens, DI 2010. Milk and meat in our diet: good or bad for health? Animal 4, 1941–1952.Google Scholar
Givens, DI 2015. Milk and dairy products: dietary partners for life? Italian Journal of Animal Science 14 (suppl. 1), 1.Google Scholar
Gladine, C, Rock, E, Morand, C, Bauchart, D and Durand, D 2007. Bioavailability and antioxidant capacity of plant extracts rich in polyphenols, given as a single acute dose, in sheep made highly susceptible to liperoxidation. British Journal of Nutrition 98, 691–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gobert, M, Martin, B, Ferlay, A, Chilliard, Y, Graulet, B, Pradel, P, Bauchart, D and Durand, D 2009. Plant polyphenols associated with vitamin E can reduce plasma lipoperoxidation in dairy cows given n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Journal of Dairy Science 92, 6095–6104.Google Scholar
Greco, LF, Neves Neto, JT, Pedrico, A, Ferrazza, RA, Lima, FS, Bisinotto, RS, Martinez, N, Garcia, M, Ribeiro, ES, Gomes, GC, Shin, JH, Ballou, MA, Thatcher, WW, Staples, CR and Santos, JEP 2015. Effects of altering the ratio of dietary n-6 to n-3 fatty acids on performance and inflammatory responses to a lipopolysaccharide challenge in lactating Holstein cows. Journal of Dairy Science 98, 602–617.Google Scholar
Griinari, JM, Corl, BA, Lacy, SH, Chouinard, PY, Nurmela, KVV and Bauman, DE 2000. Conjugated linoleic acid is synthesized endogenously in lactating dairy cows by Δ9-desaturase. Journal of Nutrition 130, 2285–2291.Google Scholar
Halmemies-Beauchet-Filleau, A, Kokkonen, T, Lampi, A-M, Toivonen, V, Shingfield, KJ and Vanhatalo, A 2011. Effect of plant oils and camelina expeller on milk fatty acid composition in lactating cows fed diets based on red clover silage. Journal of Dairy Science 94, 4413–4430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hebeisen, DF, Hoeflin, F, Reusch, HP, Junker, E. and Lauterburg, BH 1993. Increased concentrations of n-3 fatty acids in milk and platelet rich plasma of grass fed cows. International Journal for Vitamin Nutrition Research 63, 229–233.Google Scholar
Hosseini, A, Sharma, R, Bionaz, M and Loor, JJ 2013. Transcriptomics comparisons of mac-T cells versus mammary tissue during late pregnancy and peak lactation. Advances in Dairy Research 1, 103. doi:10.4172/2329-888X.1000103.Google Scholar
Hristov, AN, Oh, J, Firkins, JL, Dijkstra, J, Kebreab, E, Waghorn, G, Makkar, HPS, Adesogan, AT, Yang, W, Lee, C, Gerber, PJ, Henderson, B and Tricarico, JM 2013. Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from animal operations: I. a review of enteric methane mitigation options. Journal of Animal Science 91, 5045–5069.Google Scholar
Innis, SM 2007. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. The Journal of Nutrition 137, 855–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ingvartsen, KL and Moyes, K 2013. Nutrition, immune function and health of dairy cattle. Animal 7, 112–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacometo, CB, Schmitt, E, Pfeifer, LFM, Schneider, A, Bado, F, da Rosa, FT, Halfen, S, Del Pino, FAB, Loor, JJ, Correa, MN and Dionello, NJL 2014. Linoleic and a-linolenic fatty acid consumption over three generations exert cumulative regulation of hepatic expression of genes related to lipid metabolism. Genes & Nutrition 9, 405. doi:10.1007/s12263-014-0405-7.Google Scholar
Jenkins, TC and Bridges, WC Jr. 2007. Protection of fatty acids against ruminal biohydrogenation in cattle. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 109, 778–789.Google Scholar
Kearns, RJ, Hayek, MG, Turek, JJ, Meydani, M, Burr, JR, Greene, RJ, Marshall, CA, Adams, SM, Borgert, RC and Reinhart, GA 1999. Effect of age, breed and dietary omega-6 (n-6): omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid ratio on immune function, eicosanoid production, and lipid peroxidation in young and aged dogs. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 69, 165–183.Google Scholar
Kelley, DS, Taylor, PC, Nelson, GJ, Schmidt, PC, Ferretti, A, Ericksonc, KL, Yud, R, Chandrae, RK and Mackey, BE 1999. Docosahexaenoic acid ingestion inhibits natural killer cell activity and production of inflammatory mediators in young healthy men. Lipids 34, 317–324.Google Scholar
Kennedy, A, Martinez, K, Chuang, CC, LaPoint, K and McIntosh, M 2009. Saturated fatty acid-mediated inflammation and insulin resistance in adipose tissue: mechanisms of action and implications. Journal of Nutrition 139, 1–4.Google Scholar
La Terra, S, Marino, VM, Manenti, M, Licitra, G and Carpino, S 2010. Increasing pasture intakes enhances polyunsaturated fatty acids and lipophilic antioxidants in plasma and milk of dairy cows fed total mix ration. Dairy Science and Technology 90, 687–698.Google Scholar
Lauritzen, L, Kjær, TMR, Porsgaard, T, Fruekilde, MB, Mu, H and Frøkiær, H 2011. Maternal intake of fish oil but not of linseed oil reduces the antibody response in neonatal mice. Lipids 46, 171–178.Google Scholar
Lecchi, C, Invernizzi, G, Agazzi, A, Ferroni, M, Pisani, LF, Savoini, G and Ceciliani, F 2011. In vitro modulation of caprine monocyte immune functions by omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The Veterinary Journal 189, 353–355.Google Scholar
Lecchi, C, Invernizzi, G, Agazzi, A, Modina, S, Sartorelli, P, Savoini, G and Ceciliani, F 2013. Effects of EPA and DHA on lipid droplet accumulation and mRNA abundance of PAT proteins in caprine monocytes. Research in Veterinary Science 94, 246–251.Google Scholar
Leiber, F, Kreuzer, M, Nigg, D, Wettstein, H-R and Scheeder, MRL 2005. A study on the causes for the elevated n-3 fatty acid in cow’s milk of alpine origin. Lipids 40, 191–202.Google Scholar
Lock, AL and Bauman, DE 2004. Modifying milk fat composition of dairy cows to enhance fatty acids beneficial to human health. Lipids 39, 1197–1206.Google Scholar
Loor, JJ, Dann, HM, Everts, RE, Oliveira, R, Green, CA, Janovick Guretzky, NA, Rodriguez-Zas, SL, Lewin, HA and Drackley, KJ 2005. Temporal gene expression profiling of liver from periparturient dairy cows reveals complex adaptive mechanisms in hepatic function. Physiological Genomics 23, 217–226.Google Scholar
Martin, C, Morgavi, DP and Doreau, M 2010. Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. Animal 4, 351–365.Google Scholar
Mattos, R, Staples, CR, Arteche, A, Wiltbank, MC, Diaz, FJ, Jenkins, TC and Thatcher, WW 2004. The effects of feeding fish oil on uterine secretion of PGF(2α), milk composition, and metabolic status of periparturient Holstein cows. Journal of Dairy Science 87, 921–932.Google Scholar
McDaniel, JC, Belury, M, Ahijevych, K and Belury, M 2010. Effect of n-3 oral supplements on the n-6/n-3 ratio in young adults. Western Journal of Nursing Research 32, 64–80.Google Scholar
Mele, M, Serra, A, Buccioni, A, Conte, G, Pollicardo, A and Secchiari, P 2008. Effect of soybean oil supplementation on milk fatty acid composition from Saanen goats fed diets with different forage: concentrate ratios. Italian Journal of Animal Science 7, 297–311.Google Scholar
Moallem, U and Zachut, M 2012. Short communication: the effects of supplementation of various n-3 fatty acids to late-pregnant dairy cows on plasma fatty acid composition of the newborn calves. Journal of Dairy Science 95, 4055–4058.Google Scholar
Morgavi, DP, Forano, E, Martin, C and Newbold, CJ 2010. Microbial ecosystem and methanogenesis in ruminants. Animal 4, 1024–1036.Google Scholar
Myles, IA, Pincus, B, Fontecilla, NM and Datta, SK 2014. Effects of parental omega-3 fatty acid intake on offspring microbiome and immunity. PLoS One 9, e87181. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087181.Google Scholar
Nudda, A, Battacone, G, Neto, OB, Cannas, A, Francesconi, AHD, Atzori, AS and Pulina, G 2014. Invited review: feeding strategies to design the fatty acid profile of sheep milk and cheese. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia 43, 445–456.Google Scholar
Or-Rashid, MM, Fisher, R, Karrow, N, Al Zahal, O and McBride, BW 2012. Plasma fatty acid profile of gestating ewes supplemented with fishmeal. American Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences 7, 67–74.Google Scholar
Otto, JR, Freeman, MJ, Malau-Aduli, BS, Nichols, PD, Lane, PA and Malau-Aduli, AEO 2014. Reproduction and fertility parameters of dairy cows supplemented with omega-3 fatty acid-rich canola oil. Annual Research & Review in Biology 4, 1611–1636.Google Scholar
Palmquist, DL 2009. Omega-3 fatty acids in metabolism, health, and nutrition and for modified animal product foods. The Professional Animal Scientist 25, 207–249.Google Scholar
Papadopoulos, G, Goulas, C, Apostolaki, E. and Abril, R 2002. Effects of dietary supplements of algae, containing polyunsaturated fatty acids, on milk yield and the composition of milk products in dairy ewes. Journal of Dairy Research 69, 357–365.Google Scholar
Patra, AK and Yu, Z 2013. Effects of coconut and fish oil on ruminal methanogenesis, fermentation, and abundance and diversity of microbial populations in vitro. Journal of Dairy Science 96, 1782–1792.Google Scholar
Pikul, J, Wójtowskib, J, Dankówa, R, Teicherta, J, Czyżak-Runowskab, G, Cais-Sokolińskaa, D, Cieślakc, A, Szumacher-Strabelc, M and Emilia Bagnickada, E 2014. The effect of false flax (Camelina sativa) cake dietary supplementation in dairy goats on fatty acid profile of kefir. Small Ruminant Research 122, 44–49.Google Scholar
Pintus, S, Murru, E, Carta, G, Cordeddu, L, Batetta, B, Accossu, S, Pistis, D, Uda, S, Ghiani, ME, Mele, M, Secchiari, P, Almerighi, G, Pintus, P and Banni, S 2013. Sheep cheese naturally enriched in α-linolenic, conjugated linoleic and vaccenic acids improves the lipid profile and reduces anandamide in the plasma of hypercholesterolaemic subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 109, 1453–1462.Google Scholar
Pirondini, M, Colombini, S, Mele, M, Malagutti, L, Rapetti, L, Galassi, G and Crovetto, GM 2015. Effect of dietary starch concentration and fish oil supplementation on milk yield and composition, diet digestibility, and methane emissions in lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 98, 357–372.Google Scholar
Pisani, LF, Lecchi, C, Invernizzi, G, Sartorelli, P, Savoini, G and Ceciliani, F 2009. In vitro modulatory effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) on phagocytosis and ROS production of goat neutrophils. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 131, 79–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rees, D, Miles, EA, Banerjee, T, Wells, SJ, Roynette, CE, Wahle, KWJW and Calder, PC 2006. Dose-related effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on innate immune function in healthy humans: a comparison of young and older men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83, 331–342.Google Scholar
Santos, JE, Bilby, TR, Thatcher, WW, Staples, CR and Silvestre, FT 2008. Longchain fatty acids of diets as factors influencing reproduction in cattle. Reproduction in Domestic Animal 43, 23–30.Google Scholar
Savoini, G, Agazzi, A, Invernizzi, G, Cattaneo, D, Pinotti, L and Baldi, A 2010. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and choline in dairy goats nutrition: production and health benefits. Small Ruminant Research 88, 135–144.Google Scholar
Serhan, CN, Hong, S, Gronert, K, Colgan, SP, Devchand, PR, Mirick, G and Moussignac, RL 2002. Resolvins: a family of bioactive products of omega-3 fatty acid transformation circuits initiated by aspirin treatment that counter pro-inflammation signals. The Journal of Experimental Medicine 196, 1025–1037.Google Scholar
Serra, A, Bulleri, E, Casarosa, L, Cappucci, A, Mannelli, F and Mele, M 2015. Effect of different doses of cracked whole soybean on milk fatty acid composition in buffalo. Italian Journal of Animal Science 14 (suppl. 1), 83.Google Scholar
Shingfield, KJ, Bonnet, M and Scollan, ND 2013. Recent developments in altering the fatty acid composition of ruminant-derived foods. Animal 7, 132–162.Google Scholar
Shingfield, KJ, Chillard, Y, Toivonen, V, Kairenius, P and Givens, DI 2008. Trans fatty acids and bioactive lipids in ruminant milk. In Bioactive components of milk. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology (ed. Z Bösze), pp. 3–65. Springer, New York, NY, USA.Google Scholar
Sijben, JW and Calder, PC 2007. Differential immunomodulation with long-chain n-3 PUFA in health and chronic disease. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 66, 237–259.Google Scholar
Silvestre, FT, Carvalho, TSM, Francisco, N, Santos, JEP, Staples, CR, Jenkins, TC and Thatcher, WW 2011. Effects of differential supplementation of fatty acids during the peripartum and breeding periods of Holstein cows: I. Uterine and metabolic responses, reproduction, and lactation. Journal of Dairy Science 94, 189–204.Google Scholar
Staples, CR and Thatcher, WW 2005. Effects of fatty acids on reproduction of dairy cows. In Recent advances in animal nutrition (ed. PC Garnsworthy and J Wiseman), pp. 229–256. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK.Google Scholar
Stryker, JA, Fisher, R, You, Q, Or-Rashid, MM, Boermans, HJ, Quinton, M, McBride, BW and Karrow, NA 2013. Effects of dietary fish meal and soybean meal on the ovine innate and acquired immune response during pregnancy and lactation. Animal 7, 151–159.Google Scholar
Sweeney, B, Puri, P and Reen, DJ 2001. Polyunsaturated fatty acids influence neonatal monocyte survival. Pediatric Surgery International 17, 254–258.Google Scholar
Thom, T, Haase, N, Rosamond, W, Howard, VJ, Rumsfeld, J, Manolio, T, Zheng, ZJ, Flegal, K, O’Donnell, C, Kittner, S, Lloyd-Jones, D, Goff, DC. Jr, Hong, Y, Adams, R, Friday, G, Furie, K, Gorelick, P, Kissela, B, Marler, J, Meigs, J, Roger, V, Sidney, S, Sorlie, P, Steinberger, J, Wasserthiel-Smoller, S, Wilson, M and Wolf, P 2006. Heart disease and stroke statistics – 2006 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 113, e85–151.Google Scholar
Toral, PG, Frutos, P, Hervás, G, Gómez-Cortés, P, Juárez, M and de la Fuente, MA 2010. Changes in milk fatty acid profile and animal performance in response to fish oil supplementation, alone or in combination with sunflower oil, in dairy ewes. Journal of Dairy Science 93, 1604–1615.Google Scholar
Toral, PG, Rouel, J, Bernard, L and Chilliard, Y 2014. Interaction between fish oil and plant oils in the diet: effects on dairy performance and milk fatty acid composition in goats. Animal Feed Science and Technology 198, 67–82.Google Scholar
Tsiplakou, E and Zervas, G 2013. The effect of fish and soybean oil inclusion in goat diet on their milk and plasma fatty acid profile. Livestock Science 155, 236–243.Google Scholar
Tudisco, R, Cutrignelli, MI, Calabrò, S, Grossi, M, Musco, N, Monastra, G and Infascelli, F 2013. Milk CLA content and Δ9 desaturase activity in buffalo cows along the lactation. Buffalo Bulletin 32 (Special Issue 2), 1330–1333.Google Scholar
Vagni, S, Saccone, F, Pinotti, L and Baldi, A 2011. Vitamin E bioavailability: past and present insights. Food and Nutrition Sciences 2, 1088–1096.Google Scholar
Von Schacky, C, Kiefl, R, Jendraschak, E and Kaminski, WE 1993. n-3 Fatty acids and cysteinyl-leukotriene formation in humans in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 121, 302–309.Google Scholar
Wang, T, Oh, JJ, Lim, JN, Hong, JE, Kim, JH, Kim, JH, Kang, HS, Choi, YJ and Lee, HG 2013. Effects of lactation stage and individual performance on milk cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acids content in dairy cows. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Science 2, 189–194.Google Scholar
Weldon, SM, Mullen, AC, Loscher, CE, Hurley, LA and Roche, HM 2007. Docosahexaenoic acid induces an anti-inflammatory profile in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 18, 250–258.Google Scholar
Zymon, M, Strzetelski, J and Skrzyński, G 2014. Aspects of appropriate feeding of cows for production of milk enriched in fatty acids, EPA and DHA. A review. Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences 23, 109–116.Google Scholar