Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-5r2nc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-27T15:24:30.334Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The psychological and neurophysiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of meditation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 June 2014

Belinda Ivanovski  and
Gin S. Malhi
Belinda Ivanovski*
Affiliation:
Black Dog Institute, Sydney, Australia School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Gin S. Malhi
Affiliation:
Academic Discipline of Psychological Medicine, Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney
*
Belinda Ivanovski, Black Dog Institute Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Hospital Road, Randwick, NSW 2031 Australia. Tel: ++61 2 9382 2997; Fax: ++61 2 9382 8208; E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective:

To provide a comprehensive review and evaluation of the psychological and neurophysiological literature pertaining to mindfulness meditation.

Methods:

A search for papers in English was undertaken using PsycINFO (from 1804 onward), MedLine (from 1966 onward) and the Cochrane Library with the following search terms: Vipassana, Mindfulness, Meditation, Zen, Insight, EEG, ERP, fMRI, neuroimaging and intervention. In addition, retrieved papers and reports known to the authors were also reviewed for additional relevant literature.

Results:

Mindfulness-based therapeutic interventions appear to be effective in the treatment of depression, anxiety, psychosis, borderline personality disorder and suicidal/self-harm behaviour. Mindfulness meditation per se is effective in reducing substance use and recidivism rates in incarcerated populations but has not been specifically investigated in populations with psychiatric disorders. Electroencephalography research suggests increased alpha, theta and beta activity in frontal and posterior regions, some gamma band effects, with theta activity strongly related to level of experience of meditation; however, these findings have not been consistent. The few neuroimaging studies that have been conducted suggest volumetric and functional change in key brain regions.

Conclusions:

Preliminary findings from treatment outcome studies provide support for the application of mindfulness-based interventions in the treatment of affective, anxiety and personality disorders. However, direct evidence for the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation per se in the treatment of psychiatric disorders is needed. Current neurophysiological and imaging research findings have identified neural changes in association with meditation and provide a potentially promising avenue for future research.

Keywords

EEGmeditationmindfulnessneuroimagingZen
Type
Review article
Information
Acta Neuropsychiatrica , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , April 2007 , pp. 76 - 91
Copyright
Copyright © 2007 Blackwell Munksgaard

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Taylor, E. Introduction. In: Murphy, M, Donovan, S, eds. The physical and psychological effects of meditation. Sausalito, CA: Institute of Noetic Sciences, 1999. Google Scholar
Goleman, D. The meditative mind: the varieties of meditative experience. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Perigee Books, 1988. Google Scholar
Goleman, D. The varieties of the meditative experience. New York: EP Dutton, 1977. Google Scholar
Cayoun, BA. Mindfulness-integrated cognitive behaviour therapy (MiCBT): general principles and guidelines. In Press. Google Scholar
Kato, H. Zen and psychology. Jpn Psychol 2005;47:125–136. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andresen, J. Meditation meets behavioural medicine. The story of experimental research on meditation. J Consciousness Studies 2000;7:17–74. Google Scholar
Shapiro, D, Walsh, RN. Meditation: classical and contemporary perspectives. New York: Aldine, 1984. Google Scholar
Wallace, BA. The Buddhist tradition of Samatha: methods for refining and examining consciousness. J Consciousness Studies 1999;6:175–187. Google Scholar
Germer, CK, Siegel, RD, Fulton, PR. Mindfulness and psychotherapy. New York: Guilford Press, 2005. Google Scholar
Baer, RA. Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and empirical review. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 2003;10:125–143. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cahn, BR, Polich, J. Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP and neuroimaging studies. Psychol Bull 2006;132:180–211. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, M, Donovan, S. The physical and psychological effects of meditation. Sausalito, CA: Institute of Noetic Sciences, 1999. Google Scholar
Bishop, SR. What do we really know about mindfulness-based stress reduction? Psychosom Med 2002;64:71–84. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Germer, CK. Mindfulness: what is it? What does it matter? In: Germer, CK, Siegel, RD, Fulton, PR, eds. Mindfulness and psychotherapy. New York: Guilford Press, 2005:3–27. Google Scholar
Gunaratana, B. Mindfulness in plain English. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2002. Google Scholar
Kabat-Zinn, J. Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 2003;10:144–156. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabat-Zinn, J. Mindfulness-based stress reduction. Constructivism in the Human Sciences 2003;8:73–107. Google Scholar
Kabat-Zinn, J. An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: theoretical considerations and preliminary results. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1982;4:33–47. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, JD, Segal, Z, Williams, JMG. How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behav Res Ther 1995;33:25–39. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, RJ, Kabat-Zinn, J, Schumacher, Jet al. Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosom Med 2003;65:564–570. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kabat-Zinn, J, Lipworth, L, Burney, R. The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. J Behav Med 1985;8:163–190. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kabat-Zinn, J, Lipworth, L, Burney, R, Sellers, W. Four-year follow-up of a meditation-based program for the self-regulation of chronic pain: treatment outcomes and compliance. Clin J Pain 1987;2:159–173. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabat-Zinn, J, Massion, AO, Kristeller, Jet al. Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:936–943. Google ScholarPubMed
Kabat-Zinn, J, Wheeler, E, Light, Tet al. Influence of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention on rates of skin clearing in patients with moderate to severe psoriasis undergoing photo therapy (UVB) and photochemotherapy (PUVA). Psychosom Med 1998;60:625–632. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, JJ, Fletcher, K, Kabat-Zinn, J. Three year follow-up and clinical implications of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1995;17:192–200. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kristeller, JL, Hallet, CB. An exploratory study of a meditation-based intervention for binge eating disorder. J Health Psychol 1999;4:357–363. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, MM. Cognitive behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press, 1993. Google Scholar
Hayes, SC, Strosahl, KD, Wilson, KG. Acceptance and commitment therapy: an experiential approach to behaviour change. New York: Guilford, 1999. Google Scholar
Roemer, L, Orsillo, SM. Expanding our conceptualization of and treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Integrating mindfulness/acceptance-based approaches with existing cognitive-behavioral models. Clin Psychol: Sci Prac 2002;9:54–58. Google Scholar
Segal, ZV, Williams, JMG, Teasdale, JD. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford Press, 2002. Google Scholar
Williams, JMG, Swales, M. The use of mindfulness-based approaches for suicidal patients. Arch Suicide Res 2004;8:315–329. Google Scholar
Schwartz, JM, Stoessel, PW, Baxter, LR Jr, Martin, KM, Phelps, ME. Systematic changes in cerebral glucose metabolic rate after successful behavior modification treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:109–113. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogels, SM, Sijbers, GFVM, Voncken, M. Mindfulness and task concentration training for social phobia: a pilot study. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly J Cognit Psychother 2006;20:33–44. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ma, SH, Teasdale, JD. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: replication and exploration of differential relapse prevention effects. J Consult Clin Psychol 2004;72:31–40. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, JD, Williams, JM, Soulsby, JM, Segal, ZV, Ridgeway, VA, Lau, MA. Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. J Consul Clin Psychol 2000;68:615–623. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J, Teasdale, J, Segal, Z, Soulsby, J. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy reduces overgeneral autobiographical memory in formerly depressed patients. J Abnormal Psychol 2000;109:150–155. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finucane, A, Mercer, SW. An exploratory mixed methods study of the acceptability and effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for patients with active depression and anxiety in primary care. BMC Psychiatry 2006;6:14. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramel, W, Goldin, PR, Carmona, PE, McQuaid, JR. The effects of mindfulness meditation on cognitive processes and affect in patients with past depression. Cogn Ther Res 2004;28:433–455. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Bosch, LMC, Koeter, MW, Stijnen, T, Verheul, R, Van Den Brink, W. Sustained efficacy of dialectical behaviour therapy for borderline personality disorder. Behav Res Ther 2005;43:1231–1241. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Astin, JA. Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation. Psychother Psychosom 1997;66:97–106. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Massion, AO, Teas, J, Hebert, JR, Wertheimer, MD, Kabat-Zinn, J. Meditation, melatonin, and breast/prostate cancer: hypothesis and preliminary data. Med Hypotheses 1995;44:39–46. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapiro, SL, Schwartz, GE, Bonner, G. Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on medical and premedical students. J Behav Med 1998;21:581–599. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, KA, Kolar, MM, Reger, BE, Pearson, JC. Evaluation of a wellness-based mindfulness stress reduction intervention: a controlled trial. Am J Health Promot 2001;15:422–432. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, JMG, Duggan, DS, Crane, C, Fennell, MJV. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for prevention of recurrence of suicidal behaviour. J Clin Psychol 2006;62:201–210. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teasdale, JD, Segal, ZV, Williams, JMG. Mindfulness training and problem formulation. Clin Psychol: Sci Prac 2003;10:157–160. Google Scholar
Teasdale, JD. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. In: Yiend, J, ed. Cognition, emotion, and psychopathology. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004: 270–289. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krisanaprakornkit, T, Krisanaprakornkit, W, Piyavhatkul, N, Laopaiboon, M. Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006; Issue 1: Art. No.:CD004998.pub004992. DOI: 004910.001002/14651858.CD14004998.pub14651852. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raskin, M, Bali, LR, Peeke, HV. Muscle biofeedback and transcendental meditation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980;37:93–97. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benson, H. The relaxation response. New York: Avon, 1975. Google ScholarPubMed
Shannahoff-Khalsa, D, Ray, LE, Levine, S, Gallen, CC, Schwartz, BJ, Sidorowich, JJ. Randomised controlled trial of yogic meditation techniques for patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr 1999;4:34–47. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaudiano, BA, Herbert, JD. Acute treatment of inpatients with psychotic symptoms using acceptance and commitment therapy: pilot results. Behav Res Ther 2006;44:415–437. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wicksell, RK, Dahl, J, Magnusson, B, Olsson, GL. Using acceptance and commitment therapy in the rehabilitation of an adolescent female with chronic pain: a case example. Cognitive Behav Pract 2005;12:415–423. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orsillo, SM, Roemer, L, Block-Lerner, J, Lejeune, C, Herbert, JD. Act with anxiety disorders. In: Hayes, SC, Strosahl, KD, eds. A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy. New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2005: 103–132. Google Scholar
Beck, A, Rush, J, Shaw, B, Emery, G. Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press, 1979. Google Scholar
Folke, F, Parling, T. Acceptance and commitment therapy in group format for individuals who are unemployed and on sick leave suffering from depression: A randomized controlled trial. Dissertation: University of Uppsala, Sweden. Google Scholar
Zettle, R, Raines, J. Group cognitive and contextual therapies in treatment of depression. J Clin Psychol 1989;45:438–445. 3.0.CO;2-L>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bach, P, Hayes, SC. The use of acceptance and commitment therapy to prevent the rehospitalisation of psychotic patients: a randomised controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 2002;70:1129–1139. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaudiano, BA, Herbert, JD. Acute treatment of inpatients with psychotic symptoms using acceptance and commitment therapy: Pilot results. Beh Res Ther 2006;44:415–437. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheel, KR. The empirical basis of dialectical behaviour therapy: summary, critique and implications. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 2000;7:68–86. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, LY, Cox, BJ, Gunasekara, S, Miller, AL. Feasability of dialectical behaviour therapy for suicidal adolescent inpatients. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004;43:276–282. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroger, C, Schweiger, U, Sipos, Vet al. Effectiveness of dialectical behaviour therapy for borderline personality disorder in an inpatient setting. Behav Res Ther 2006;44:1211–1217. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linehan, MM, Armstrong, HE, Suarez, A, Allmon, D, Heard, HL. Cognitive behavioural treatment of chronically parasuicidal borderline patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:1060–1064. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, MM, Comtois, KA, Murray, AMet al. Two-year randomised controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behaviour therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviours and borderline personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:757–766. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, MM, Schmidt, H, Dimeff, L, Craft, C, Kanter, J, Comtois, KA. Dialectical behaviour therapy for patients with borderline personality disorder and drug dependence. Am J Addict 1999;8:279–292. Google ScholarPubMed
Verheul, R, Van den Bosch, LMC, Koeter, MW, De Ridder, MAJ, Stijnen, T, Van den Brink, W. Dialectical behaviour therapy for women with borderline personality disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2003;182:135–140. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chandiramani, K, Verma, SK, Dhar, PL. Psychological effects of Vipassana on Tihar Jail inmates. Unpublished manuscript, 1998; Cited in Bowen, S, Witkiewitz, K, Dillworth, TMet al. Mindfulness meditation and substance abuse in an incarcerated population. Psychol Addict Behav 2006;20:343–347. Google Scholar
Kumar, T. Vipassana meditation courses in Tihar Jail. Paper presented at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India; 1995 April. Google Scholar
Vora, RL. Jail courses and Vipassana (Baroda jail). Presented at an international seminar of the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India; 1995 April. Google Scholar
Bowen, S, Witkiewitz, K, Dillworth, TMet al. Mindfulness meditation and substance use in an incarcerated population. Psychol Addict Behav 2006;20:343–347. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, E, Teasdale, JD. Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression. J Affect Disord 2004;82:1–8. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapiro, SL, Carlson, LE, Astin, JA, Freedman, B. Mechanisms of mindfulness. J Clin Psychol 2006;62:373–386. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maupin, EW. Individual differences in response to a Zen meditation exercise. J Consult Psychol 1965;29:139–145. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valentine, ER, Sweet, PLG. Meditation and attention: a comparison of the effects of concentrative and mindfulness meditation on sustained attention. Ment Health Relig Cult 1999;2:59–70. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linden, W. Practicing of meditation by school children and their levels of field dependence-independence, test anxiety and reading achievement. J Consult Clin Psychol 1973;41:139–143. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rani, NJ, Rao, PV. Meditation and attention regulation. J Indian Psychol 1996;14:26–30. Google Scholar
Kubose, SK. An experimental investigation of psychological aspects of meditation. Psychologia 1976;19:1–10. Google Scholar
Harrison, LJ, Manocha, R, Rubia, K. Sahaja yoga meditation as a family treatment programme for children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2004;9:479–497. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, AJ, Shallice, T, Mccarthy, R. Frontal lesions and sustained attention. Neuropsychologia 1987;25:359–365. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, RJ, Goleman, D, Schwartz, GE. Attentional and affective concomitants of meditation: a cross-sectional study. J Abnorm Psychol 1976;85:235–238. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lesh, TV. Zen meditation and the development of empathy in counselors. J Humanistic Psychol 1970;10:39–74. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, DP, Forte, M, Dysart, M. Visual sensitivity and mindfulness meditation. Percept Mot Skills 1984;58:775–784. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, DP, Forte, M, Dysart, M. Differences in visual sensitivity among mindfulness meditators and non-meditators. Percept Mot Skills 1984;58:727–733. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, OL, Presti, DE, Callistemon, C, Ungerer, Y, Liu, GB, Pettigrew, JD. Meditation alters perceptual rivalry in Tibetan Buddhist monks. Curr Biol 2005;15:R412–R413. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lou, HC, Kjaer, TW, Friberg, L, Wildschiodtz, G, Holm, S, Nowak, M. A 150-h2o pet study of meditation and the resting state of normal consciousness. Hum Brain Mapp 1999;7:98–105. 3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herzog, H, Lele, VR, Kuwert, T, Langen, KJ, Kops, ER, Feinendegen, LE. Changed pattern of regional glucose metabolism during yoga meditative relaxation. Neuropsychobiology 1990/1991;23:182–187. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kjaer, TW, Bertelsen, C, Piccini, P, Brooks, D, Alving, J, Lou, HC. Increased dopamine tone during meditation-induced change of consciousness. Cogn Brain Res 2002;13:255–259. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lazar, SW, Bush, G, Gollub, RL, Fricchione, GL, Khalsa, G, Benson, H. Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation. Neuroreport 2000;11:1581–1585. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newberg, A, Alavi, A, Baime, M, Pourdehnad, M, Santanna, J, d’Aquili, E. The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during the complex cognitive task of meditation: a preliminary spect study. Psychiatry Res 2001;106:113–122. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takahashi, T, Murata, T, Hamada, Tet al. Changes in EEG and autonomic nervous activity during meditation and their association with personality traits. Int J Psychophysiol 2005;55:199–207. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aftanas, LI, Golosheikin, SA. Changes in cortical activity in altered states of consciousness: the study of meditation by high-resolution eeg. Hum Physiol 2003;29:143–151. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lutz, A, Greischar, LL, Rawlings, NB, Ricard, M, Davidson, RJ. Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004;101:16369–16373. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, BR, Hartigan, JA, Mikulas, WL. Concentration and mindfulness meditations: unique forms of consciousness? Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 1999;24:147–165. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehmann, D, Faber, PL, Achermann, P, Jeanmonod, D, Gianotti, LRR, Pizzagalli, D. Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience of the self. Psychiatry Res 2001;108:111–121. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newberg, AB, Iversen, J. The neural basis of the complex mental task of meditation: Neurotransmitter and neurochemical considerations. Medical Hypotheses 2003;61:282–291. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, W. The art of living: Vipassana meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka. San Francisco: Harper, 1987. Google Scholar
Stern, RM, Ray, WJ, Quigley, KS. Psychophysiological recording, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Google Scholar
Schacter, DL. EEG theta waves and psychological phenomena: a review and analysis. Biol Psychol 1977;5:47–82. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aftanas, L, Lotova, NV, Koshkarov, VI, Makhnev, VP, Mordvinstev, YN, Popov, SA. Non-linear dynamic complexity of the human EEG during evoked emotions. Int J Psychophysiol 1998;28:63–76. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aftanas, LI, Golocheikine, SA. Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neurosci Lett 2001;310:57–60. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basar, E, Basar-Eroglu, C, Karakas, S, Schurmann, M. Gamma, alpha, delta, and theta oscillations govern cognitive processes. Int J Psychophysiol 2001;39:241–248. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dietl, T, Dirlich, G, Vogl, L, Lechner, C, Strian, F. Orienting response and frontal midline theta activity: a somatosensory spectral perturbation study. Clin Neurophysiol 1999;110:1204–1209. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, JC. Intention as a component of the alpha-rhythm response to mental activity. Int J Psychophysiol 1996;24:7–23. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klimesch, W, Doppelmayr, M, Russegger, H, Pachinger, T, Schwaiger, J. Induced alpha band power changes in human EEG and attention. Neurosci Lett 1998;244:73–76. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazar, SW, Rosman, IS, Vangel, Met al. Functional brain imaging of mindfulness and mantra-based meditation. Washington, DC: Society for Neuroscience, 2003. Google Scholar
Lazar, SW, Kerr, CE, Wasserman, RHet al. Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. Neuroreport 2005;16:1893–1897. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kasamatsu, A, Hirai, T. An electroencephalographic study on the Zen meditation (zaZen). Folia Psychiatrica et Neurologica Japonica 1966;20:315–336. Google Scholar
Becker, DE, Shapiro, D. Physiological responses to clicks during Zen, yoga, and tm meditation. Psychophysiology 1981;18:694–699. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lo, PC, Huang, ML, Chang, KM. EEG alpha blocking correlated with perception of inner light during Zen meditation. Am J Chin Med 2003;31:629–642. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murata, T, Takahashi, T, Hamada, Tet al. Individual trait anxiety levels characterizing the properties of Zen meditation. Neuropsychobiology 2004;50:189–194. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delmonte, MM. Physiological responses during meditation and rest. Biofeedback Self Regul 1984;9:181–200. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jevning, R, Wallace, R, Beidebach, M. The physiology of meditation: a review: a wakeful hypometabolic integrated response. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1992;16:415–424. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuman, M. The psychophysiological model of meditation and altered states of consciousness: a critical review. In: Davidson, JM, Davidson, RJ, eds. The psychobiology of consciousness. New York: Plenum Press, 1980: 333–378. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, MA. Meditation and the EEG. Psychol Med 1980;10:369–375. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woolfolk, RL. Psychophysiological correlates of meditation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1975;32:1326–1333. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murata, T, Koshino, Y, Omori, Met al. Quantitative EEG study on Zen meditation (zaZen). Japanese Journal of Psychiatry & Neurology 1994;48:881–890. Google Scholar
Faber, PL, Lehmann, D, Gianotti, LRR, Kaelin, M, Pascual-Marqui, RD. Scalp and intacerebral (LORETA) theta and gamma EEG coherence in meditation. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for Neuronal Regulation; 2004 April; Winterthur, Switzerland. Google Scholar
Kubota, Y, Sato, W, Toichi, Met al. Frontal midline theta rhythm is correlated with cardiac autonomic activities during the performance of an attention demanding meditation procedure. Cogn Brain Res 2001;11:281–287. CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lo, PC, Leu, JS. Quantification of pseudo-periodicity of alpha rhythm in meditation EEG. Journal of Medical & Biological Engineering 2005;25:7–13. Google Scholar
Chang, KM, Lo, PC. Hurst exponents and linear regression with an application to low-power beta characterization in meditation EEG. Am J Electroneurodiagn Technol 2005;45:130–138. Google ScholarPubMed
Baerentsen, KB, Hartvig, NV, Stodkilde-Jorgensen, H, Mammen, J. Onset of meditation explored with fMRI. NeuroImage 2001;13 (6, Suppl. 1): 297–297. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ritskes, R, Ritskes-Hoitinga, M, Stodkilde-Jorgensen, H, Baerentsen, K, Hartman, T. MRI scanning during Zen meditation: the picture of enlightenment? Constructivism in the Human Sciences 2003;8:85–90. Google Scholar