Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T23:21:24.249Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

De ontwikkelingsneurologische theorie van schizofrenie: bewijsmateriaal betreffende structuur en neuropsychologic

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2015

S.E. Chua  and
R.M. Murray
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Severe schizophrenics as a group show subtle abnormalities of cerebral structure. Cerebral ventricular enlargement is the best replicated finding, and this tends to be associated with impairment of neuropsychological performance. The idea that these abnormalities have a neurodevelopmental origin gains indirect support from the, admittedly less consistent, evidence of abnormalities of cerebral asymmetry and of neuronal migration in adult schizophrenics, as well as from the behavioural, psychomotor, and cognitive impairments reported in preschizophrenic children. However, the relationship between childhood and adult neuropsychological and brain structural findings has not been proven, and we do not know whether only some schizophrenics have a developmental origin, or whether patients differ only in the degree of developmental impairment that they show.

Keywords

SchizophrenianeurodevelopmentalneuropsychologystructurefunctionalimagingSchizofrenieontwikkelingsneurologischneuropsychologicstructuurfunctionedbeeldvorming
Type
Research Article
Information
Acta Neuropsychiatrica , Volume 8 , Issue 2 , June 1996 , pp. 25 - 34
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Literatuur

1.Kraepelin, E. Dementia Praecox. In: ‘The Clinical Roots of the Schizophrenia Concept’. 5th edition of Psychiatrie (trans by Cutting, J & Shepherd, M). Leipzig: Barth, 1896. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press, 1987: 426–41.Google Scholar
2.Kraepelin, E. Dementia Praecox and paraphrenia (trans. Barclay, RM, 1919). Edinburgh: Livingstone, 1913.Google Scholar
3.Bleuler, E. Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias (trans. Zinkin, J, 1950). New York: International Univ Press, 1911.Google Scholar
4.Schneider, K. Clinical psychopathology, 5th Ed (trans. Hamilton, MW). New York: Grune and Stratton, 1959.Google Scholar
5.Murray, RM, O'Callaghan, E, Castle, DJ, Lewis, SW. A neurodevelopmental approach to the classification of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1992; 18: 319–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6.Parnas, J, Mednick, SA. In: Hafner, H, Gattaz, WF. Search for the causes of schizophrenia. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 1991; 34–48.Google Scholar
7.Rifkin, L, Lewis, SW, Jones, PB, Toone, BK, Murray, RM. Schizophrenic patients of low birth weight show poor premorbid function, and cognitive impairment in adult life. Br J Psychiat 1994;165:357–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.McNeil, TF, Cantor-Grade, E, Nordstrom, LG, Roselund, T. Head circumference in ‘preschizophrenic’ and control neonates. Br J Psychiat 1993; 162: 517–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.Kinugi, H, Nanko, S, Takei, N, Saito, K, Murray, RM. Smaile head circumference at birth in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1989; 15: 91–9.Google Scholar
10.Green, MF, Satz, P, Gaier, DJ, Ganzell, S, Kharabi, F. Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1989; 15: 91–9.Google ScholarPubMed
11.Jones, PB, Murray, RM. The genetics of schizophrenia is the genetics of neurodevelopment. Br J Psychiat 1991; 158:615–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.O'Callaghan, E. Sham, P, Takei, N, Glover, G, Murray, RM. Schizophrenia after prenatal exposure to 1957 A2 influenca epidemic. Lancet 1991; i: 1248–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Mednick, S, Machon, RA, Huttunen, MO. Adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic. Arch gen Psychiat 1988; 45: 189–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Sham, P, O'Callaghan, E, Takei, N, Murray, G, Hare, E, Murray, RM. Schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to influenza epidemics between 1939 and 1960. Br J Psychiat 1992; 160: 461–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Lewis, SW, Owen, MJ, Murray, RM. Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: methodology and mechanisms. In: Schultz, SC, Tamminga, CA, eds. Schizophrenia: A scientific Focus. New York: Oxford Univ Press, 1989: 56–68.Google Scholar
16.Murray, RM. The developing understanding of schizophrenia. Transactions of The college of Medicine of South Africa, 01 to June 1994: 15–20.Google Scholar
17.McGrath, J, Murray, RM. Risk factors for schizophrenia – from conception to birth. In: Hirsch, S, Weinberger, D, eds. Schizophrenia. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995: 185–205.Google ScholarPubMed
18.Murray, RM, Lewis, SW, Revely, AM. Towards an aetiological classification of schizophrenia. Lancet 1995; i: 1023–6.Google Scholar
19.Murray, RM, Jones, PB, O'Callaghan, E. Foetal brain development and later schizophrenia. In: Proceedings of Ciba symposium No. 156. The childhood Environment and Adult Disease. Chichester: Wiley, 1990.Google Scholar
20.Cannon, TD, Marco, M. Structural brain abnormalities as indicators of vulnerability to schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 89–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.Johnstone, EC, Crow, TJ, Frith, CD, Husband, J, Kreel, L. Cerebral ventricular size and cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet 1976;ii:924–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.Weinberger, DR, Torrey, EF, Neophytides, AN, Wyatt, RJ. Lateral cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1979; 36: 735–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Andreasen, NC, Swayze, VW, Flaum, M, Yates, WR, Arndt, S, McChesney, C. Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia evaluated with computed tomographic scanning. Arch gen Psychiat 1990;47:1008–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Jones, PB, Harvey, I, Lewis, SW, et al.Cerebral ventricle dimensions as risk factors for schizophrenia and affective psychosis: epidemiological approach to analysis. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 995–1013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Suddath, RL, Casanova, MF, Goldberg, TE, Daniel, DG, Kelsoe, JR, Weinberger, DR. Temporal lobe pathology in schizophrenia: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Am J Psychiat 1989; 146: 464–72.Google ScholarPubMed
26.Andreasen, NC, Ehrhardt, JC, Swayze, VW, et al.Magnetic imaging resonance of the brain in schizophrenia; the pathophysiologic significance of structural abnormalities. Arch gen Psychiat 1990; 47: 35–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Zipursky, RB, Lim, KO, Sullivan, EV, Brown, BW, Pfefferbaum, A. Widespread cerebral grey matter volume deficitis in schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1992; 49: 195–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28.Harvey, I, Ron, MA, Du Boulay, G, Wicks, D, Lewis, SW, Murray, RM. Reduction of cortical volume in schizophrenia on magnetic resonance imaging. Psychol Med 1993; 23: 591–604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Harvey, I, Persaud, R, Ron, MA, Baker, G, Murray, RM. Volumetric MRI measurements in bipolare compared with schizophrenic and healthy controls. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 689–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.De Lisi, LE, Hoff, AL, Schwartz, JE, et al.Brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenic-like psychotic patients; a quantitative MRI study. Biol Psychiat 1991; 29: 159–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31.Vita, A, Saccheti, E, Valvasori, G, Cazzullo, CL. Brain morphology in schizophrenia: a 2- to 5-year CT scan follow-up study. Acta psychiat scand 1988; 78: 618–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Illowski, BP, Juliano, DM, Bigelow, LB, Weinberger, DR. Stability of CT scan findings in schizophrenia: results of an eight year follow-up study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1988; 51:209–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Weinberger, DR, Cannon-Spoor, E, Potkin, SG, Wyatt, RJ. Poor premorbid adjustment and CT scan abnormalities in chronic schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 1990; 137: 1410–3.Google Scholar
34.Pakkenburg, B. Post-mortem study of chronic schizophrenic brains. Br J Psychiat 1987; 151: 744–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Bruton, CJ, Crow, TJ, Frith, , et al.Schizophrenia and the brain; a prospective post-mortem study. Psychol Med 1990; 20: 285–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36.Suddath, RL, Christison, GW, Fuller Torrey, E, Casanova, MF, Weiberger, DR. Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. New Engl J Med 1990;322:789–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.Johnstone, EC, Owens, DGC, Crow, TJ, et al.Temporal lobe structure as determined by nuclear magnetic resonance in schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1989; 52: 736–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Breier, A, Buchanan, RW, Elkashef, A, et al.Brain morphology and schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1992; 49: 921–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Shenton, ME, Kikinis, R, Jolesz, FA, et al.Abnormalities of the left temporal lobe and thought disorder in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 1993; 33: 236–46.Google Scholar
40.Bogerts, B, Lieberman, JA, Ashtari, M, et al.Hippocampal-amygdala volumes and psychopathology in chronic schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 1993; 33: 236–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Bogerts, B, Meertz, E, Schonfeld-Bausch, R, Basal ganglia and limbic system pathology in schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1985;42:784–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Brown, R, Colter, N, Corsellis, Jan, et al.Post-mortem evidence of structural brain changes in schizophrenia: differences in brain weight, temporal horn area, and parahippocampal gyrus with affective disorder. Arch gen Psychiat 1986; 43: 36–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Altschuler, LL, Casanova, MF, Goldberg, TE, et al.The hippocampus and parahippocampus in schizophrenic, suicide and control brains. Arch gen Psychiat 1990; 47: 1029–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44.Kovelman, JA, Scheibel, AB. A neurohistological correlate of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 1984;19:1601–21.Google ScholarPubMed
45.Falkai, P, Bogerts, B. Cell loss in the hippocampus of schizophrenics. Eur Arch Psychiat Neurol Sci 1986;236:154–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46.Jakob, H, Beckmann, H. Prenatal developmental disturbances in the limbic allocortex in schizophrenia. Arch neural Transm 1986;65:303–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47.Benes, FM, Davidson, J, Bird, ED. Quantitative cytoarchitectural studies of cerebral cortex of schizophrenics. Arch gen Psychiat 1986;43:31–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Akbarian, S, Bunney, WE, Potkin, SG, et al.Altered distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dicucleotide phosphate-diaphorase cells in frontal lobe of schizophrenics implies disturbances of cortical development. Arch gen Psychiat 1994; 50: 169–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49.Richman, DP, Stewart, RM, Hutchison, JW, Caviness VS jnr. Mechanical model of brain convolutional development. Science 1975; 189: 18–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Roberts, GW, Colter, N, Lofthouse, R, Johnstone, EC, Crow, TJ. Is there gliosis in schizophrenia? Investigation of the temporal lobe. Biol Psychiat 1987; 22: 1459–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Larroche, JK. Malformations of the nervous system. In: Adams, JM, Corsellis, JAN, Duchen, LW, eds. Greenfield's Neuropathology, 4th Ed. London: Edward Arnold, 1984: 385.Google Scholar
52.LeMay, M, Kido, DK. Asymmetries of the cerebral hemispheres on computed tomograms. J Comp ass Tomography 1978; 2:471.Google Scholar
53.Pienadz, JM, Naeser, MA. Computed tomographic scan, cerebral asymmetries and morphological brain asymmetries. Arch Neurol 1984; 41: 403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54.Jack, CR, Dale, DG, Sharborough, FW, et al.Temporal lobe volume measurement from MRI images: accuracy and left-right asymmetry in normal persons. J Comp ass Tomography 1988; 12:21–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.Jack, CR, Twomey, CK, Zinmeister, AR, Sharborough, FW, Peterson, RC, Cascino, GD. Anterior temporal lobes and hippocampal formation: normative volumetric measurements form MR images in young adults. Radiology 1989; 172: 549–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.De Lisi, LE, Hoff, AL, Neale, C, Kushner, M. Asymmetries in the superior temporal lobe in male and female first-episode schizophrenic patients; measures of the planum temporale and superior temporal gyrus by MRI. Schizophr Res 1994; 12: 19–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.McGlone, J. Sex differences in human brain asymmetry; a critical survey. Behav Brain Sci 1980; 3: 215–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58.Kertesz, A, Polk, M, Black, SE, Howell, J. Sex, handedness, and the morphometry of cerebral asymmetries on magnetic resonance imaging. Brain Res 1990; 530: 40–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Bullmore, E, Brammer, M, Harvey, I, Murray, R, Ron, M. Cerebral hemispheric asymmetry revisited: effects of handedness, gender, and schizophrenia measured by radius of gyration in magnetic resonance images. Psychol Med 1995; 25: 349–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Larsen, JP, Hoien, T, Lundberg, I, Odegaard, H. MRI evaluation of the size and asymmetry of the planum temporale in adolescents with developmental dyslexia. Brain Lang 1990; 39: 289–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Geschwind, N, Galaburda, AM. Cerebral Lateralization: Biological mechanisms, Associations, Pathology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987.Google Scholar
62.Luchins, DJ, Weinberger, DR, Wyatt, RJ. Schizophrenia: Evidence of a subgroup with reversed cerebral asymmetry. Arch gen Psychiat 1979; 36: 1309–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Naeser, MA, Levine, HL, Benson, DF, Stuss, DT, Weir, WS. Frontal leukotomy size and hemispheric asymmetries on computerized tomographic scans of schizophrenics with variable recovery. Arch Neurol 1981; 38: 30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Tsai, LY, Nasrai Iah, HA, Jacoby, CG. Hemispheric asymmetries on computed tomographic scans in schizophrenia and mania. Arch gen Psychiat 1983; 40: 1286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.Crow, TJ, Colter, N, Frith, CD, Johnstone, EC, Owens, DGF. Psychiat Res 1989; 29: 247–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66.Castle, DJ, Murray, RM. The neurodevelopmental basis of sex differences in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1991; 21: 565–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
67.Galaburda, AM, Sanides, F, Geschwind, N. Human Brain: cyto-architectonic left-right asymmetries in the temporal speech region. Arch Neurol 1978; 35: 812–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68.Falkai, P, Bogerts, B, Greve, B, Pfeiffer, U, Machus, B, Folsch-Reetz, B, et al.Loss of sylvian fissure asymmetry in schizophrenia: a quantitative post-mortem study. Schizophr Res 1992; 7: 23–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Falkai, P, Bogerts, B, Schneider, T, et al.Disturbed planum temporale asymmetry in schizophrenia. A quantitative postmortem study. Schizophr Res 1995; 14: 161–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
70.Crow, TJ, Brown, R, Burton, CJ, Frith, CD, Gray, V. Loss of Sylvian fissure asymmetry in schizophrenia: findings in the Runwell 2 series of brains. Schizophr Res 1992; 6: 152–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71.Rossi, A, Stratta, P, Mattei, P, Cupillari, M, Bozzao, A, Galluci, M, et al.Planum temporale in schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance study. Schizophr Res 1992; 7: 19–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72.Owens, DGC, Johnstone, EC, Crow, TJ, Frith, CD, Jagoe, JR & Kreel, L. Lateral ventricular size in schizophrenia; relationship to the disease process and its clinical manifestation. Psychol Med 1985; 15: 27–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73.Lewis, SW. Computed tomography in schizophrenia 15 years on. Br J Psychiat 1990; 157(suppl 9): 16–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74.Gray, JA, Feldon, J, Rawlins, JNP, Hemsley, DR, Smith, AD. The neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Behav Brain Sci 1991; 14: 1–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75.David, AS, Cutting, JC, editors. The Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia. Hove (UK): Lawrence Ehrlbaum Associates Ltd, 1994.Google ScholarPubMed
76.McKenna, PJ. Schizophrenia and related sydromes. Oxford: Oxf Univ Press, 1994.Google Scholar
77.Chapman, LJ, Chapman, JP. The measurement of differential deficits. J psychiat Res 1978; 14: 303–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78.Saykin, AJ, Gur, RE, Mozley, D, Resnick, SM, Rester, DB, Stafi-niak, P. Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia: selective impairment in memory and learning. Arch gen Psychiat 1991; 48:618–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79.Saykin, AJ, Shtasel, DL, Gur, RE, et al.Neuropsychological deficits in neurolepticnaive patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1994; 51: 124–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80.Heaton, RK, Baade, LE, Johnson, KL. Neuropsychological test results associated with psychiatric disorders in adults. Psychol Bull 1978; 85: 141–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81.Owens, DGC, Johnstone, EC. The disabilities of chronic schizophrenics – their nature and factors contributing to their development. Br J Psychiat 1980; 136: 384–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82.Goldberg, TE, Hyde, TM, Kleinman, JE, Weinberger, DR. Course of schizophrenia: neuropsychological evidence for a static encephalopathy. Schizophr Bull 1993; 19: 797–804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83.Medalia, A, Gold, JM, Merriam, A. The effects of neuroleptics on neuropsychological test results of schizophrenics. Arch clin Neuropsychol 1988; 3: 249–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84.Chapman, LJ, Chapman, JP. Strategies for resolving the heterogeneity of schizophrenics and their relatives using cognitive measures. J abnorm Psychol 1989; 98: 357–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.Kremen, WS, Seidman, LJ, Pepple, JR, Tsuang, MT, Faraone, SV. Neuropsychological risk factors for schizophrenia: a review of family studies. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 103–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86.Asarnow, RF, Asamen, J, Granholm, E, Sherman, T, Watkins, JM, Williams, ME. Cognitive/neuropsychological studies of children with a schizophrenic disorder. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 647–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87.Walker, EF, Emory, E. Infants at risk for psychopathology: offspring of schizophrenic parents. Child Development 1983; 54: 1269–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.Walker, EF, Savoie, T, Davis, D. Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20: 441–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89.Payne, RW. Cognitive abnormalities. In: Eysenck, HJ, ed. Handbook of abnormal Psychology. London: Pitman, 1973: 420–83.Google Scholar
90.Nelson, HE, Pantelis, C, Carruthers, K, Speller, J, Baxendale, S, Barnes, TRE. Cognitive functioning and symptomatology in chronic schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1990; 20: 357–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91.Jones, PB, Bebbington, P, Foerster, A, et al.Premorbid social underachievement in schizophrenia: results from the Camberwell Collaborative Psychosis Study. Br J Psychiat 1993; 162:65–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92.Robins, LN. Deviant children grown up. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Co, 1966.Google Scholar
93.Jones, PB, Guth, C, Lewis, SW, Murray, RM. Low intelligence and poor educational achievement precede early-onset schizophrenic psychosis. In: David, AS, Cutting, JC, eds. The Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia. Hove (UK): Lawrence Ehrlbaum Associates Ltd. 1994; 8: 131–42.Google Scholar
94.Cannon, M, Kargin, M, Jones, PB, Hollis, C, Murray, RM. Predictors of adult psychosis in children who present to a child psychiatry clinic. Schizophr Res 1995; 15(1, 2): 190. Abstract.Google Scholar
95.Russel, AJ, Munro, J, Jones, PB, Hemsley, DH, Murray, RM. A longitudinal folluw-up of I.Q. in a sample of adult schizophrenics who presented to psychiatric services during childhood and adolescence. Schizophr Res 1995; 15 (1, 2): 132. Abstract.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
96.Foerster, A, Lewis, SW, Owen, MJ, Murray, RM. Premorbid adjustment and personality in psychosis. Effects of sex and diagnosis. Br J Psychiat 1991; 158: 171–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Cannon-Spoor, HE, Potkin, SG, Wyatt, RJ. Measurement of premorbid adjustment in chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1982: 471–84.Google ScholarPubMed
98.Nelson, HA, Connell, A. Dementia; the estimation of premorbid intelligence levels using the New Adult Reading Test. Cortex 1978; 14: 233–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99.Foerster, A, Lewis, SW, Owen, MJ, Murray, RM. Low birth weight and a family history of schizophrenia predict a low premorbid functioning in psychosis. Schizophr Res 1991; 5: 13–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100.Jones, PB, Murray, RM, Rodgers, B. Child development preceding adult schizophrenia in a natural birth cohort. Schizophr Res 1994; 11: 97.Google Scholar
101.Done, DJ, Crow, TJ, Johnstone, EC, Sacker, A. Childhood antecedents of schizophrenia and affective illness: social adjustments at ages 7 and 11. Br med J 1994; 309: 699–703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102.Walker, EF, Lewine, RJ. Prediction of adultonset schizophrenia from childhood home-movies of the patients. Am J Psychiat 1990; 147: 1052–6.Google ScholarPubMed
103.Jones, P, Rogers, B, Murray, RM, Marmot, M. Child developmental risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 1994; 344: 1398–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104.Hollis, C. Child and adolescent (juvenile-onset) schizophrenia. A case-control study of premorbid developmental impairments. Br J Psychiat 1995; 166: 489–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.McGuire, PK, Shah, GMS, Murray, RM. Increased blood flow in Broca's area during auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Lancet 1993; 342: 703–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106.McGuire, PK, Silbersweig, DA, Wright, I, et al.Abnormal monitoring of inner speech: a physiological basis. Lancet 1995; 346: 596–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107.Fish, B. Biologic antecedents of psychosis in children. In: The biology of the major psychoses: A comparative analysis. Freedman, DX, editor. Association for research in nervous and mental disease. New York, NY: Raven Press, 1975; 54: 49–80.Google Scholar
108.Marcus, J, Hans, SL, Auerbach, JG, Auerbach, AG. Children at risk of schizophrenia: the Jerusalem infant Development study. Arch gen Psychiat 1993; 797–809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109.Mednick, SA, Mura, M, Schulzinger, F, Mednick, B. Perinatal conditions and infant development in children with schizophrenic parents. Soc Biology 1971; 18: S103–13.Google ScholarPubMed
110.Gottesman, II, Shields, J. A twin study vantage point. London: Acad Press, 1972.Google Scholar
111.Goldberg, TE, Ragland, D, Torrey, EF, Gold, JM, Bigelow, LB, Weinberger, DR. Neuropsychological assessment of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1990; 47: 1066–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112.Sautter, FJ, McDermott, BE, Cornwell, JC, Black, FW, Borges, AB, Johnson, J, et al.Patterns of Neuropsychological deficit in cases of schizophrenia spectrum disorder with and without a family history of psychosis. Psychiat Res 1994; 54: 37–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113.Chua, SE, McKenna, PJ. Schizophrenia is a brain disease, isn't it? A critical review of structural and functional cerebral abnormality in the disorder. Br J Psychiat 1995; 166: 563–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
114.Hoff, Al, Riordan, H, O'Donnell, DW, Morris, L, DeLisi, LE. Neuropsychological functioning of first-episode schizophreniform patients. Am J Psychiat 1992; 149: 898–903.Google ScholarPubMed
115.Seidman, LJ, Yurglin-Todd, D, Dremen, WS, et al.Relationship of prefrontal and temporal lobe MRI measures to neuropsychological performance in chronic schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 1994; 35: 235–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116.Liddle, PF, Friston, KJ, Frith, CD, Hirsch, SR. Jones, T, Frackowiak, RSJ. Patterns of cerbral blood flow in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiat 1992; 160: 179–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
117.Cleghorn, JM, Franco, S, Szechtman, B, Kaplan, RD, Brown, GM, et al.Toward a brain map of auditory hallucinations. Am J Psychiat 1992; 149: 1062–9.Google Scholar
118.Dolan, RJ, Bench, CJ, Liddle, PF, et al.Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction in the major psychoses: symptom of disease specificity? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1993; 56: 1290–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119.Schallice, T, Burgess, PW, Frith, CD. Can the neuropsychological case-study approach be applied to schizophrenia? Psychol Med 1991;21:661–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
120.Friston, KJ, Frith, CD, Liddle, PF, et al.Investigating a network model of word generation with positron emission tomography. Proc Roy Soc London 1991; 244: 101–6.Google ScholarPubMed
121.Weinberger, DR, Berman, KF, Zee, RF. Physiological dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. In: Regional blood flow evidence. Arch gen Psychiat 1986; 43:114–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
122.Rubin, P, Holm, S, Friberg, L, et al.Altered modulation of prefrontal and subcortical brain activity in newly diagnosed schizophrenia and schizophrenic psychosis: a regional cerebral blood flow study. Arch gen Psychiat 1991; 48: 987–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123.Andraesen, NC, Rezai, K, Alliger, R, et al.Hypofrontality in neurolepticnaive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1992; 49: 943–58.Google Scholar
124.Berman, KF, Torrey, EF, Daniel, DG, et al.Regional cerebral blood flow in monozygotic twins discordant and concordant for schizophrenia. Arch gen Psychiat 1992; 19: 927–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
125.Kawasaki, Y, Maeda, Y, Suzuki, MO, et al.SPECT analysis of regional cerebral blood flow in patients with schizophrenia during the Winsconsin Card Sorting Test. Schizophr Res 1993; 10: 109–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
126.Busatto, GF, Costa, DC, Ell, PJ, et al.Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in schizophrenia during verbal memory activation: a 99mTc-HMPAO single photon emisión tomography (SPET) study. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 463–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
127.Gur, RE, Jaggi, JL, Shastel, J, et al.Cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia: effects of memory processing on regional activation. Biol Psychiat 1994; 35: 3–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
128.Frith, CD, Friston, KJ, Herold, S, Silbersweig, D, Fletcher, P, Cahill, C, et al.Regional brain activity in chronic schizophrenic patients during the performance of a verbal fluency task. Evidence for a failure of inhibition in left superior temporal cortex. Br J Psychiat 1995;167:343–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar