Element contents
Series: Elements in Criminology
Using the Police Craft to Improve Patrol Officer Decision-Making
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 December 2023
Summary
In this Element we build on our previous work conceptualizing a craft learning model for governing police discretion. We envision a model for harnessing patrol officers' craft knowledge and skills, learned through experience handling similar street-level encounters over time, to the development of standards for evaluating the quality of their decision-making. To clarify the logic of this model and its potential for police reform, we situate it within the context of other systems of discretion control, including law, bureaucracy, science, and the community. We also consider obstacles. We conclude that police organizations need to balance the different strategies for channeling and controlling discretion toward the goal of advancing more transparent and principled decision-making. The challenge is finding a balance that helps prevent arbitrary, pernicious, or uncompromising uses of police authority, but that also empowers and rewards officers for using the skills of perception and resourcefulness that contribute to wise judgment.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in CriminologyOnline ISBN: 9781009314534Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 21 December 2023
References
Abner, G., & Rush, S. (2022). Assessing the correlates of CALEA accreditation: A state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal, 45(5), 776–793. https://doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-02-2022-0032.Google Scholar
Alpert, G., & Rojek, J. (2011). Frontline police officer assessments of risks and decision-making during encounters with offenders. Briefing paper: ARC Center of Excellence in Policing and Security.Google Scholar
Angell, J. E. (1971). Toward an alternative to the police classic organizational arrangements: A democratic model. Criminology, 9(2–3), 185–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1971.tb00766.x.Google Scholar
Baldwin, J. (1966, July 11). A report from occupied territory. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/culture/report-occupied-territory/Google Scholar
Barbee, A. P., Christensen, D., Antle, B., Wandersman, A., & Cahn, K. (2011). Successful adoption and implementation of a comprehensive casework practice model in a public child welfare agency: Application of the Getting to Outcomes (GTO) model. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(5), 622–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.11.008.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving Organizational Effectiveness through Transformational Leadership. Thousand Oaks: Sage.Google Scholar
Bayley, D. H. (1986). The tactical choices of police patrol officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 14(4), 329–348.Google Scholar
Bayley, D. H. (2008). Police reform: Who done it? Policing and Society, 18(1), 7–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460701718518.Google Scholar
Bayley, D. H. (2016). The complexities of 21st century policing. Policing, 10(3), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paw019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayley, D. H., & Bittner, E. (1984). Learning the skills of policing. Law and Contemporary Problems, 47(4), 35–59. https://doi.org/10.2307/1191686.Google Scholar
Bayley, D. H., & Garofalo, J. (1989). The management of violence by police patrol officers. Criminology 27(1), 1–26.Google Scholar
Berrey, E., Hoffman, S. G., & Nielsen, L. B. (2012). Situated justice: A contextual analysis of fairness and inequality in employment discrimination litigation. Law & Society Review, 46(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2012.00471.x.Google Scholar
Bittner, E. (1967). The police on skid-row: A study of peace-keeping. American Sociological Review, 32(5), 699–715.Google Scholar
Bittner, E. (1967a). Police discretion in emergency apprehension of mentally ill persons. Social Problems, 14(3), 278–292. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.1967.14.3.03a00040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bittner, E. (1970). The Functions of the Police in Modern Society. National Institute of Mental Health.Google Scholar
Bittner, E. (1983). Legality and workmanship: Introduction to control in the police organization. In Punch, M. (Ed.), Control in the Police Organization (pp. 1–11). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Blumberg, D. M., Schlosser, M. D., Papazoglou, K., Creighton, S., & Kaye, C. C. (2019). New directions in police academy training: A call to action. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(24), 4941. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16244941.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonta, J., & Andrews, D. A. (2016). The Psychology of Criminal Conduct (6th ed.). Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.Google Scholar
Braga, A. A., & Weisburd, D. L. (2020). Does hot spots policing have meaningful impacts on crime? Findings from an alternative approach to estimating effect sizes from place-based program evaluations. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-020-09481-7.Google Scholar
Charles, M. T. (2000). Police Training–Breaking All the Rules: Implementing the Adult Education Model into Police Training. Charles C. Thomas Publication.Google Scholar
Cheng, T. (2022). The cumulative discretion of police over community complaints. American Journal of Sociology, 127(6), 1782–1817. https://doi.org/10.1086/719682.Google Scholar
Christopher, S. (2015). The police service can be a critical reflective practice … If it wants. Policing, 9(4), 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pav007.Google Scholar
Cobb, J. (2021, August 19). A Warning Ignored. The New York Review of Books. www.nybooks.com/articles/2021/08/19/kerner-commission-warning-ignored/.Google Scholar
Cohen, H. S., & Feldberg, M. (1991). Power and Restraint: The Moral Dimension of Police Work. Praeger.Google Scholar
Cordner, G. (2017). Police culture: Individual and organizational differences in police officer perspectives. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-07-2016-0116.Google Scholar
Couper, D. C., & Lobitz, S. H. (1991). Quality Policing: The Madison Experience. Police Executive Research Forum.Google Scholar
Crowder, G. (2020). The Problem of Value Pluralism: Isaiah Berlin and beyond. Routledge.Google Scholar
Dagan, D. (2017. November 25). The Baltimore Cops studying Plato and James Baldwin. The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/11/the-baltimore-cops-studying-plato-and-james-baldwin/546485/.Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. D.C. Heath and Co. Publishers.Google Scholar
Ellinger, A. D., & Bostrom, R. P. (1999). Managerial coaching behaviors in learning organizations. Journal of Management Development, 18(9), 752–771. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621719910300810.Google Scholar
Engel, R. S. (2002). Patrol officer supervision in the community policing era. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0047-2352(01)00122-2.Google Scholar
Engel, R. S., & Worden, R. E. (2003). Police officers’ attitudes, behavior, and supervisory influences: An analysis of problem solving. Criminology, 41(1), 131–166.Google Scholar
Ervin, N. E. (2005). Clinical coaching: A strategy for enhancing evidence-based nursing practice. Clinical Nurse Specialist CNS, 19(6), 296–301. https://doi.org/10.4161/cc.4.12.2282.Google Scholar
Feldman, D. C., & Lankau, M. J. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 31(6), 829–848. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305279599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernandez, S., & Rainey, H. G. (2006). Managing successful organizational change in the public sector. Public Administration Review, 66(2), 168–176.Google Scholar
Fielding, N. (1984). Police socialization and police competence. The British Journal of Sociology, 35(4), 568. https://doi.org/10.2307/590435.Google Scholar
Flyvbjerg, B. (2012). Making social science matter. In Papanagnou, G. (Ed.), Social Science and Policy Challenges: Democracy, Values, and Capacities (pp. 25–56). Unesco.Google Scholar
Flyvbjerg, B., & Sampson, S. (2001). Making Social Science Matter Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Folger, R., & Cropanzano, R. (2001). Fairness theory: Justice as accountability. In Greenberg, J. & Cropanzano, R. (Eds.), Advances in Organization Justice (pp. 1–55). Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Force, P. A. T. (2016). Recommendations for Reform: Restoring Trust between the Chicago Police and the Communities They Serve. Chicago Police Accountability Task Force.Google Scholar
Friedman, B. (2017). Unwarranted: Policing without Permission. Farrar, Straus & Giroux.Google Scholar
Gau, J. M., & Brunson, R. K. (2010). Procedural justice and order maintenance policing: A study of inner‐city young men’s perceptions of police legitimacy. Justice Quarterly, 27(2), 255–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902763889.Google Scholar
Gawande, A. (2011, September 26). Personal Best. The New Yorker. www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/03/personal-best.Google Scholar
Gawande, A. (2016, June 10). The Mistrust of Science. The New Yorker. www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-mistrust-of-science.Google Scholar
Goldstein, H. (1963). Police discretion: The ideal versus the real. Public Administration Review, 23(3), 140. https://doi.org/10.2307/973838.Google Scholar
Goldstein, H. (1967). Police policy formulation: A proposal for improving police performance. Michigan Law Review, 65(6), 1123. https://doi.org/10.2307/1287280.Google Scholar
Goldstein, H. (1979). Improving policing: A problem-oriented approach. Crime & Delinquency, 25(2), 236–258.Google Scholar
Gould, J. B., & Mastrofski, S. D. (2004). Suspect searches: Assessing police behavior under the U.S. Constitution. Criminology and Public Policy, 3(3), 315–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2004.tb00046.x.Google Scholar
Greene, J. R. (2014). New directions in policing: Balancing prediction and meaning in police research. Justice Quarterly, 31(2), 193–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2013.840389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4), 814–834. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.108.4.814.Google Scholar
Hart, H. M. (1958). The aims of the criminal law. Law and Contemporary Problems, 23(3), 401–441. https://doi.org/10.2307/1190221.Google Scholar
Heffernan, W. C., & Lovely, R. W. (1991). Evaluating the fourth amendment exclusionary rule: The problem of police compliance with the law. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 24, 311–369.Google Scholar
Herbert, S. (1998). Police subculture reconsidered. Criminology, 36(2), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01251.x.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, A. M., Varban, O. A., & Dimick, J. B. (2016). Novel uses of video to accelerate the surgical learning curve. Journal of Laparoendoscopic & Advanced Surgical Techniques, 26(4), 240–242. https://doi.org/10.1089/lap.2016.0100.Google Scholar
Jonathan-Zamir, T., Weisburd, D., Dayan, M., & Zisso, M. (2019). The proclivity to rely on professional experience and evidence-based policing: Findings from a survey of high-ranking officers in the Israel police. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(10), 1456–1474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854819842903.Google Scholar
Joyce, B. R., & Showers, B. (2002). Student Achievement Through Staff Development (Vol. 3). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D., & Klein, G. (2009). Conditions for intuitive expertise: A failure to disagree. American Psychologist, 64(6), 515–526. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016755.Google Scholar
Katz, C. M., Maguire, E. R., & Roncek, D. W. (2002). The creation of specialized police gang units: A macro-level analysis of contingency, social threat, and resource dependency explanations. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 25(3), 472–506.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L. (1999). Broken Windows and Police Discretion. U.S. Department of Justice. www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/178259.pdf.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L., & Moore, M. H. (1988). The Evolving Strategy of Policing (No. 4). U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Klein, G. (2015). A naturalistic decision-making perspective on studying intuitive decision-making. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 4(3), 164–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.07.001.Google Scholar
Klein, G. A. (2011). Streetlights and Shadows: Searching for the Keys to Adaptive Decision-making. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Klein, G., Calderwood, R., & Clinton-Cirocco, A. (2010). Rapid decision-making on the fire ground: The original study plus a postscript. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision-making, 4(3), 186–209. https://doi.org/10.1518/155534310x12844000801203.Google Scholar
Klockars, C. B., Ivković, S. K., & Haberfeld, M. R. (2005). Enhancing police integrity. U.S. Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs.Google Scholar
Koen, M., & Mathna, B. (2019). Body-worn cameras and internal accountability at a police agency. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 3(2), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/6363.Google Scholar
Koen, M. C., Newell, B. C., & Roberts, M. R. (2021). Body-worn cameras: Technological frames and project abandonment. Journal of Criminal Justice, 72, 101773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101773.Google Scholar
Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. FT Press.Google Scholar
Laub, J. H. (2004). The life course of criminology in the United States: The American society of criminology 2003 Presidential Address. Criminology, 42(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00511.x.Google Scholar
Loftus, B. (2010). Police occupational culture: Classic themes, altered times. Policing and Society, 20(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460903281547.Google Scholar
Loftus, B. (2022). Police Culture: Origins, Features, and Reform. Mass Casualty Commission. https://masscasualtycommission.ca/files/commissioned-reports/COMM0053825.pdf?t=1652281766.Google Scholar
Lum, C. (2009). Translating Police Research into Practice: Ideas in American Policing. The Police Foundation.Google Scholar
Lum, C. M., & Koper, C. S. (2017). Evidence-Based Policing: Translating Research into Practice. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lum, C., Koper, C. S., Wilson, D. B., et al. (2020). Body‐worn cameras’ effects on police officers and citizen behavior: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 16(3), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1112.Google Scholar
Lum, C., Koper, C. S., & Wu, X. (2021). Can we really defund the police? A nine-agency study of police response to calls for service. Police Quarterly, 25(3), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111211035002.Google Scholar
Manning, P. K. (1997). Police Work: The Social Organization of Policing. Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D. (1988). Community policing as reform: A cautionary tale. In Greene, J. R. & Mastrofski, S. D. (Eds.), Community Policing: Rhetoric or Reality (pp. 47–67). Praeger.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D. (1996). Measuring police performance in public encounters. In Hoover, L. T. (Ed.), Quantifying Quality in Policing (pp. 207–241). Police Executive Research Forum.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D. (1999). Policing for People: Ideas in American Policing. Police Foundation.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D. (2000). The police in America. In Sheley, J. F. (Ed.), Criminology: A Contemporary Handbook (pp. 405–443). Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D. (2004). Controlling street-level police discretion. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716203262584.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D. (2018). Do the Right Thing: Evaluating Police Performance at the Street Level. Inaugural Stephen D. Mastrofski Lecture.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D. (2019). Community policing: A skeptical view. In Weisburd, D. & Braga, A. A. (Eds.), Police Innovation: Contrasting Perspectives (pp. 44–73). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D., & Greene, J. R. (1993). Community policing and the rule of law. In Weisburd, D. & Uchida, C. (Eds.), Police Innovation and Control of the Police (pp. 80–102). Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D., & Ritti, R. R. (2000). Making sense of community policing: A theory-based analysis. Police Practice and Research, 1(2), 183–210.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D., Snipes, J. B., Parks, R. B., & Maxwell, C. D. (2000). The helping hand of the law: Police control of citizens on request. Criminology, 38(2), 307–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00892.x.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D., Snipes, J. B., & Supina, A. E. (1996). Compliance on demand: The public’s response to specific police requests. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33(3), 269–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427896033003001.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D., & Uchida, C. D. (1993). Transforming the police. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30(3), 330–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427893030003005.Google Scholar
Mastrofski, S. D., & Willis, J. J. (2010). Police organization continuity and change: Into the twenty‐first century. Crime and Justice, 39(1), 55–144. https://doi.org/10.1086/653046.Google Scholar
Meares, T., Tyler, T., & Gardener, J. (2015). Lawful or fair? How cops and laypeople perceive good policing. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 105(2), 297–344. https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/vol105/iss2/1.Google Scholar
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2012). Motivational Interviewing (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Milne, D. (2009). Evidence-Based Clinical Supervision Principles and Practice. BPS Blackwell.Google Scholar
Moore, M. H. (1995). Learning while doing: Linking knowledge to policy in the development of community policing and violence prevention in the United States. In Wilkstrom, P. O., Clarke, R. V. & McCord, J. (Eds.), Integrating Crime Prevention Strategies: Propensity and Opportunity (pp. 301–333). The National Council for Crime Prevention.Google Scholar
Muir, W. K. Jr. (1977). Police: Streetcorner Politicians. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Neyroud, P., & Weisburd, D. (2023). Re-inventing policing: Using science to transform policing. In Weisburd, D. L., Jonathan-Zamir, T., Perry, G. & Hasisi, B.. The Future of Evidence-Based Policing (pp. 44–63). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nix, J., Todak, N., & Tregle, B. (2020). Understanding body-worn camera diffusion in U.S. policing. Police Quarterly, 23(3), 396–422. https://doi.org/10.21428/cb6ab371.ffc93ca8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nussbaum, M. (1986). The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, M. C. (1992). Love’s Knowledge: Essays on Philosophy and Literature. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ohlin, L. E. (1993). Surveying discretion by criminal justice decision makers. In Ohlin, L. E. & Remington, F. J. (Eds.), Discretion in Criminal Justice: The Tension Between Individualization and Uniformity (pp. 1–22). State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Owens, E., Weisburd, D., Amendola, K. L., & Alpert, G. P. (2018). Can you build a better cop? Criminology & Public Policy, 17(1), 41–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12337.Google Scholar
Paoline, E. A. (2003). Taking stock: Toward a richer understanding of police culture. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(3), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0047-2352(03)00002-3.Google Scholar
Parks, R. B., Mastrofski, S. D., DeJong, C., & Gray, M. K. (1999). How officers spend their time with the community. Justice Quarterly, 16(3), 483–518. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829900094241.Google Scholar
Pennington, L., & Farrell, A. (2019). Role of voice in the legal process*. Criminology, 57(2), 343–368. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12205.Google Scholar
Perry, S., Hasisi, B., & Weisburd, D. (2023). “The contribution of the ‘super evidence cop:’ Key role of police leaders in advancing evidence-based policing”. In Verma, A. & Das, D. K (Eds.), Police Leaders as Thinkers (pp. 105–117). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19700-0.Google Scholar
Phelps, J. M., Strype, J., Le Bellu, S., Lahlou, S., & Aandal, J. (2016). Experiential learning and simulation-based training in Norwegian police education: Examining body-worn video as a tool to encourage reflection. Policing, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paw014.Google Scholar
Ponomarenko, M. (2019). Rethinking police rulemaking. Northwestern University Law Review, 144(1), 1–64. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3333804.Google Scholar
President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. (1967). The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. United States Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
President’s Taskforce on 21st Century Policing: Final Report. (2015). Office of Community-Oriented Policing Services. https://cops.usdoj.gov/pdf/taskforce/taskforce_finalreport.pdfGoogle Scholar
Rahr, S., & Rice, S. K. (2015). From Warriors to Guardians. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Ramsey, C. H. (2014). The Challenge of Policing in a Democratic Society: A Personal Journey Toward Understanding. Harvard Kennedy School Program in Criminal Justice Policy and Management.Google Scholar
Sabel, C. F., & Simon, W. H. (2016). The duty of responsible administration and the problem of police accountability. Yale Journal on Regulation, 33(1), 165–214.Google Scholar
Salas, E., Rosen, M. A., & DiazGranados, D. (2010). Expertise-based intuition and decision-making in organizations. Journal of Management, 36(4), 941–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206309350084Google Scholar
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning. Josey-Bass.Google Scholar
Searcey, D. (2020). What would efforts to defund or disband police departments really mean? The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2020/06/08/us/what-does-defund-police-mean.html.Google Scholar
Sherman, L. W. (1984). Experiments in police discretion: Scientific boon or dangerous knowledge? Law and Contemporary Problems, 47(4), 61. https://doi.org/10.2307/1191687.Google Scholar
Sherman, L. W. (1998). Evidence-Based Policing: Ideas in American Policing. Police Foundation.Google Scholar
Sherman, L. W. (2003). Reason for emotion: Reinventing justice with theories, innovation, and research. Criminology, 41(1), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00980.x.Google Scholar
Simmel, G. (1908/1950). The stranger. In Wolff, K. H. (Ed.), The Sociology of Georg Simmel (pp. 402–408). The Free Press.Google Scholar
Sklansky, D. A., & Marks, M. (2008). The role of the rank and file in police reform. Policing and Society, 18(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460701718484.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G. (2006). Police and Community in Chicago: A Tale of Three Cities. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G. (2019). The promise of community policing. In Weisburd, D. & Braga, A. A. (Eds.), Police Innovation: Contrasting Perspectives (pp. 28–43).Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G., & Frydl, K. . (2004). Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing the Evidence. National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G., & Meares, T. L. (2004). Lawful policing. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593(1), 66–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716204263637.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G., & Roth, J. A. (2004). Introduction. In Skogan, W. G. (Ed.), Community Policing (Can it Work?) (pp. xvii–xxxiv). Thomson/Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Sloan, J. J. III, & Paoline, E. A. III (2021). “They need more training!” A national level analysis of police academy basic training priorities. Police Quarterly, 24(4), 109861112110133. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111211013311.Google Scholar
Snyder, J. A., Crow, M. S., & Smykla, J. O. (2019). Police officer and supervisor perceptions of body-worn cameras pre- and postimplementation: The importance of officer buy-in. Criminal Justice Review, 44(3), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016819846223.Google Scholar
Sparrow, M. K. (2011). Governing Science. Harvard Kennedy School Program in Criminal Justice Policy and Management.Google Scholar
Stalans, L. J., & Finn, M. A. (1995). How novice and experienced officers interpret wife assaults: Normative and efficiency frames. Law & Society Review, 29(2), 287. https://doi.org/10.2307/3054013.Google Scholar
Stoughton, S. W., Alpert, G. P., and Noble, J. (2015). Why police need constructive criticism. The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/12/officer-porter-mistrial-police-culture/421656/.Google Scholar
Telep, C. W., & Lum, C. (2014). The receptivity of officers to empirical research and evidence-based policing: An examination of survey data from three agencies. Police Quarterly, 17(4), 359–385. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611114548099.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2001). Policing is not a treatment: Alternatives to the medical model of police research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 387–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427801038004003.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2004). Order maintenance reconsidered: Moving beyond strong causal reasoning. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), 94(2), 381–414. https://doi.org/10.2307/3491374.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2006). The normative case study. American Journal of Sociology, 111(6), 1631–1676. https://doi.org/10.1086/499913.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2008). Research for the front lines. Policing and Society, 18(1), 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460701718567.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2016). Channeling police discretion: The hidden potential of focused deterrence. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 13, 533–577. http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol2016/iss1/13.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2019). The aspiration of scientific policing. Law & Social Inquiry, 44(1), 273–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12367.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2020). The learning model of use-of-force reviews. Law & Social Inquiry, 45(3), 755–786. https://doi.org/10.1017/lsi.2019.80.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2022). Shrinking the police footprint. Criminal Justice Ethics, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/0731129x.2022.2062546.Google Scholar
Thacher, D., & Rein, M. (2004). Managing value conflict in public policy. Governance, 17(4), 457–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0952-1895.2004.00254.x.Google Scholar
Toronjo, H. (2019). Gut check: Turning experience into knowledge. In Ugwudike, P., Graham, H., McNeill, F., Raynor, P., Taxman, F. S., & Trotter, C. (Eds.), The Routledge Companion to Rehabilitative Work in Criminal Justice (pp. 352–382). Routledge.Google Scholar
Toronjo, H. (2020). Do you really want to help me? Practitioner perspectives on a new coaching model for probation front-line supervisors. MA Thesis, Department of Criminology, Law and Society: George Mason University.Google Scholar
Tyler, T. R. (2004). Enhancing police legitimacy. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593, 84–99.Google Scholar
Tyler, T. R., Callahan, P. E., & Frost, J. (2007). Armed, and dangerous (?): Motivating rule adherence among agents of social control. Law & Society Review, 41(2), 457–492. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2007.00304.x.Google Scholar
Van de Ven, A. H., & Schomaker, M. S. (2002). Commentary: The rhetoric of evidence-based medicine. Health Care Management Review, 27(3), 88–91.Google Scholar
Vanecko, R. (2020). The Chicago Consent Decree and the Fallacy of Police Reform. Available at SSRN 3724453.Google Scholar
Van Maanen, J. (1983). The boss: First-line supervision in an American police agency. In Punch, M. (Ed.), Control in the Police Organization (pp. 275–317). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Waddington, P. A. J., Williams, K., Wright, M., & Newburn, T. (2015). Dissension in public evaluations of the police. Policing and Society, 25(2), 212–235.Google Scholar
Walker, S. (1992). Origins of the contemporary criminal justice paradigm: The American bar foundation survey, 1953–1969. Justice Quarterly, 9(1), 47–76.Google Scholar
Walker, S. (1993). Taming the System: The Control of Discretion in Criminal Justice: 1950–1990. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Walker, S. (1993a). Historical roots of the legal control of police behavior. In Weisburd, D. & Uchida, C. (Eds.), Police Innovation and Control of the Police (pp. 32–55). Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Walker, S. (2016). Governing the American police: Wrestling with the problems of democracy. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 15, 615–660.Google Scholar
Walkers, S., & Katz, C. M. (2005). The Police in America: An Introduction. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Wasserman, R., & Moore, M. H. (1988). Values in Policing (No. 8). U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D. L. (2003). Ethical practice and evaluation of interventions in crime and justice. Evaluation Review, 27(3), 336–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841x03027003007.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D. L. (2015). The law of crime concentration and the criminology of place. Criminology, 53(2), 133–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12070.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D. L., Mastrofski, S. D., McNally, A. M., Greenspan, R., & Willis, J. J. (2003). Reforming to preserve: Compstat and strategic problem solving in American policing. Criminology Public Policy, 2(3), 421–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2003.tb00006.x.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D. L., Jonathan-Zamir, T., Perry, G., & Hasisi, B. (2023). The future of evidence-based policing: Introduction. In Weisburd, D. L., Jonathan-Zamir, T., Perry, G., & Hasisi, B.. The Future of Evidence-Based Policing. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D. L., Telep, C. W., Vovak, H., Zastrow, T., Braga, A. A., & Turchan, B. (2022). Reforming the police through procedural justice training: A multicity randomized trial at crime hot spots. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(14), 1–6.Google Scholar
White, M. D., & Malm, A. E. (2020). Cops, Cameras, and Crisis: The Potential and the Perils of Police Body-Worn Cameras. New York University Press.Google Scholar
White, M., Fradella, H., & Flippin, M. (2020). How can we achieve accountability in policing? The (Not-so-secret) ingredients to effective police reform. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3720162.Google Scholar
Willis, J. J. (2013). Improving Police: What’s Craft Got to Do With It? Ideas in American Policing. Police Foundation.Google Scholar
Willis, J. J. (2022). “Culture eats strategy for breakfast”: An in-depth examination of police officer perceptions of body-worn camera implementation and their relationship to policy, supervision, and training. Criminology and Public Policy, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12591.Google Scholar
Willis, J. J., & Mastrofski, S. D. (2017). Understanding the culture of craft: Lessons from two police agencies. Journal of Crime and Justice, 40(1), 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648x.2016.1174497.Google Scholar
Willis, J. J., & Mastrofski, S. D. (2018). Improving policing by integrating craft and science: What can patrol officers teach us about good police work? Policing and Society, 28(1), 27–44.Google Scholar
Willis, J. J., Mastrofski, S. D., & Weisburd, D. L. (2004). Compstat and bureaucracy: A case study of challenges and opportunities for change. Justice Quarterly, 21(3), 463–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820400095871.Google Scholar
Willis, J. J., Mastrofski, S. D., & Weisburd, D. (2007). Making sense of COMPSTAT: A theory-based analysis of organizational change in three police departments. Law & Society Review, 41(1), 147–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2007.00294.x.Google Scholar
Willis, J. J., & Toronjo, H. (2019). Translating police research into policy: Some implications of the National Academies report on proactive policing for policymakers and researchers. Police Practice and Research, 20(6), 617–631. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2019.1657631.Google Scholar
Willis., J. J., Koen, M.K. & Toronjo, H. (2022). Governing police discretion through a craft learning model: Promises and Pitfalls. European Journal of Policing Studies, 1-22. doi: 10.5553/EJPS/2034760X2022001005Google Scholar
Willis, J. J. & Toronjo, H. (2023). Exploring a craft learning model for reviewing patrol officer decision-making in encounters with the public. Law and Social Inquiry, 48(3), 819-46.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken windows. The Atlantic Monthly, 249, 29–38.Google Scholar
Wittgenstein, L. (1958). Philosophical Investigations. Translated by Anscombe G.E.M. Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wolfe, S., Rojek, J., McLean, K., & Alpert, G. (2020). Social interaction training to reduce police use of force. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 687(1), 124–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219887366.Google Scholar
Worden, R. E., & Dole, C. J. (2019). The holy grail of democratic policing. Criminal Justice Ethics, 38(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/0731129x.2019.1586217.Google Scholar
Yanow, D., & Tsoukas, H. (2009). What is reflection-in-action? A phenomenological account. Journal of Management Studies, 46(8), 1339–1364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00859.x.Google Scholar
- 2
- Cited by