Element contents
Series: Elements in Phonetics
Phonetics in Language Teaching
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 December 2022
Summary
This Element explores ways in which language teachers, especially teachers of English, can benefit from knowledge of phonetics. It also offers recommendations for introducing and improving pronunciation teaching in the classroom. While hoping that this Element is useful to instructors of all languages, the majority of the examples comes from North American English (NAE) and the English language classroom. At the same time, the Element acknowledges that English language teaching is rather different from the teaching of other languages, since nowadays, most interactions around the world in English do not involve a native speaker, and use of English as a lingua franca (ELF) has become widespread. Teachers of English should be aware that their students may not want to mimic all aspects of native-speaker pronunciation; since some native-speaker patterns of speech, such as the extensive simplification and omission of sounds may not be helpful in enhancing intelligibility.
Keywords
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in PhoneticsOnline ISBN: 9781108992015Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 19 January 2023
References
Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2009). Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: Listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning, 52, 249–306.Google Scholar
Acton, W., Baker, A., Burri, M., & Teaman, B. (2013). Preliminaries to haptic-integrated pronunciation instruction. In Levis, J. & LeVelle, K. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th pronunciation in second language learning and teaching conference, Aug. 2012 (pp. 234–244). Iowa State University.Google Scholar
Alameen, G., & Levis, J. (2015). Connected speech. In Reed, M. & Levis, J. (Eds.), The handbook of English pronunciation (pp. 159–174). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Anderson‐Hsieh, J., Johnson, R., & Koehler, K. (1992). The relationship between native speaker judgments of nonnative pronunciation and deviance in segmentals, prosody, and syllable structure. Language Learning, 42(4), 529–555.Google Scholar
Avery, P. *-, & Ehrlich, S. (1992a). Individual sounds of English. In Avery, P. & Ehrlich, S. (Eds.), Teaching American English pronunciation (pp. 11–35). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Avery, P., & Ehrlich, S. (1992b). Common pronunciation problems. In Avery, P. & Ehrlich, S. (Eds.), Teaching American English pronunciation (pp. 95–110). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Avery, P., & Ehrlich, S. (1992c). Problems of selected language groups. In Avery, P. & Ehrlich, S. (Eds.), Teaching American English pronunciation (pp. 111–160). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baker, A. (2014). Exploring teachers’ knowledge of second language pronunciation techniques: Teacher cognitions, observed classroom practices, and student perceptions. TESOL Quarterly, 48(1), 136–163.Google Scholar
Beisbier, B. (1995). Sounds great, Book 2: Intermediate pronunciation and speaking for learners of English. Thomson Heinle.Google Scholar
Best, C. T. (1995). A direct realist perspective on cross-language speech perception. In Strange, W. (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experiences: Theoretical and methodological issues in cross-language speech research (pp. 167–200). York Press.Google Scholar
Best, C. T., McRoberts, G. W., & Goodell, E. (2001). Discrimination of non-native consonant contrasts varying in perceptual assimilation to the listener’s native phonological system. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 109(2), 775–794.Google Scholar
Best, C. T., & Tyler, M. D. (2007). Nonnative and second-language speech perception: Commonalities and complementarities. In Munro, M. J. & Bohn, O.-S. (Eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning: In honor of James Emil Flege (pp. 13–34). John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birdsong, D. (Ed.). (1999). Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Routledge.Google Scholar
Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2021). Praat: Doing phonetics by computer (Version 6.1.50) (Computer program). Accessed June 20, 2021. www.praat.org.Google Scholar
Bolinger, D. L. M. (1989). Intonation and its uses: Melody in grammar and discourse. Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brazil, D. (1997). The communicative value of intonation in English. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Breitkreutz, J. A., Derwing, T. M., & Rossiter, M. J. (2001). Pronunciation teaching practices in Canada. TESL Canada Journal, 19(1), 51–61.Google Scholar
Brown, A. (1988). Functional load and the teaching of pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 593–606. Also in A. Brown (Ed.). (1991). Teaching English pronunciation: A book of readings (pp. 211–224). Routledge.Google Scholar
Brown, A. (Ed.). (1991). Teaching English pronunciation: A book of readings. Routledge.Google Scholar
Burri, M., & Baker, A. (2021). ‘I feel … slightly out of touch’: A longitudinal study of teachers learning to teach English pronunciation over a six-year period. Applied Linguistics, 42(4), 791–809. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amab009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carley, P., & Mees, I. M. (2021). American English phonetics and pronunciation practice. Routledge.Google Scholar
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D., & Goodwin, J. (2010). Teaching pronunciation: A course book and reference guide (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chapman, M. (2007). Theory and practice of teaching discourse intonation. ELT Journal, 61(1), 3–11.Google Scholar
Clynes, A., & Deterding, D. (2011). Standard Malay (Brunei). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 41(2), 259–268.Google Scholar
Coe, N. (2001). Speakers of Spanish and Catalan. In Swan, M. & Smith, B. (Eds.), Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (pp. 90–112). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Collins, B., & Mees, I. M. (2009). Practical phonetics and phonology (2nd ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar
Cooper, R. P., & Aslin, R. N. (1990). Preference for infant‐directed speech in the first month after birth. Child Development, 61(5), 1584–1595.Google Scholar
Couper, G. (2006). The short- and long-term effects of pronunciation instruction. Prospect, 21(1), 46–66.Google Scholar
Couper, G. (2017). Teacher cognition of pronunciation teaching: Teachers’ concerns and issues. TESOL Quarterly, 51(4), 820–843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cruttenden, A. (2014). Gimson’s pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cucchiarini, C., Strik, H., & Boves, L. (2000). Different aspects of expert pronunciation quality ratings and their relation to scores produced by speech recognition algorithms. Speech Communication, 30(2–3), 109–119.Google Scholar
Cutler, A. (1986). Forbear is a homophone: Lexical prosody does not constrain lexical access. Language and Speech, 29(3), 201–220.Google Scholar
Dauer, R. M. (1983). Stress-timing and syllable-timing revisited. Journal of Phonetics, 21, 103–108.Google Scholar
Davis, S. (2002). Syllable structure for an artificial language based on universal principles. Journal of Universal Language, 3(1), 1–13.Google Scholar
De Bot, K., Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2007). A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition. Bilingualism, 10(1), 7–21.Google Scholar
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2005). Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A research-based approach. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 379–397. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588486.Google Scholar
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2015). Pronunciation fundamentals: Evidence-based perspectives for L2 teaching and research. John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Wiebe, G. (1998). Evidence in favor of a broad framework for pronunciation instruction. Language Learning, 48(3), 393–410.Google Scholar
Derwing, T. M., & Rossiter, M. J. (2003). The effects of pronunciation instruction on the accuracy, fluency, and complexity of L2 accented speech. Applied Language Learning, 13(1), 1–17.Google Scholar
Deterding, D. (2006). The pronunciation of English by speakers from China. English World-Wide, 27(2), 175–198.Google Scholar
Deterding, D. (2013). Misunderstandings in English as a lingua franca: An analysis of ELF interactions in south-east Asia. De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Deterding, D., Wong, J., & Kirkpatrick, A. (2008). The pronunciation of Hong Kong English. English World-Wide, 29(2), 148–175.Google Scholar
Ding, S., Liberatore, C., Sonsaat, S., et al. (2019). Golden speaker builder: An interactive tool for pronunciation training. Speech Communication, 115, 51–66.Google Scholar
Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447.Google Scholar
Esling, J. H. (2010). Phonetic notation. In Hardcastle., W. J., Laver, J. & Gibbon, F. E. (Eds.), The handbook of phonetic sciences (pp. 678–702). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Fernald, A. (1985). Four-month-old infants prefer to listen to motherese. Infant Behavior and Development, 8(2), 181–195.Google Scholar
Field, J. (2014). Myth 3: Pronunciation teaching has to establish a set of distinct sounds. In Grant, L. (Ed.), Pronunciation myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching (pp. 80–106). University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E. (1995). Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems. In Strange, W. (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Theoretical and methodological issues in cross-language research (pp. 233–277). York Press.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E., & Bohn, O.-S. (2021). The revised speech learning model (SLM-r). In Wayland, R. (Ed.), Second language speech learning: Theoretical and empirical progress (pp. 3–83). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foote, J. A., Holtby, A. K., & Derwing, T. M. (2011). Survey of the teaching of pronunciation in adult ESL programs in Canada, 2010. TESL Canada Journal, 29(1), 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fouz-González, J., & Mompean, J. A. (2021). Exploring the potential of phonetic symbols and keywords as labels for perceptual training. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(2), 297–328.Google Scholar
Fuchs, R. (2016). Speech rhythm in varieties of English: Evidence from educated Indian English and British English. Springer.Google Scholar
Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4: Intonation is hard to teach. In Grant, L. (Ed.), Pronunciation myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching (pp. 107–136). University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Gilbert, J. B. (1991). Gadgets: Non-verbal tools for teaching pronunciation. In Brown, A. (Ed.), Teaching English pronunciation: A book of readings (pp. 308–322). Routledge.Google Scholar
Gilbert, J. B. (2008). Teaching pronunciation using the prosody pyramid. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goh, C. (2000). A cognitive perspective on language learners’ listening comprehension problems. System, 28(1), 55–75.Google Scholar
Goh, C. (2008). Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development: Theory, practice and research implications. Regional Language Centre Journal, 39(2), 188–213.Google Scholar
Grabe, E., & Low, E. L. (2002). Durational variability in speech and the rhythm class hypothesis. In Gussenhoven, C. & Warner, N. (Eds.), Laboratory phonology 7 (pp. 515–546). Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Grant, L. (2017). Well said: Pronunciation for clear communication (4th ed.). Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Grosjean, F., & Gee, J. (1987). Prosodic structure and spoken word recognition. Cognition, 25, 135–155.Google Scholar
Hahn, L. D. (2004). Primary stress and intelligibility: Research to motivate the teaching of suprasegmentals. TESOL Quarterly, 38(2), 201–223.Google Scholar
Haslam, M. (2018). Teaching the sound system of English. In Liontas, J. I. (Ed.), The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching (pp. 1–7). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Hayes-Harb, R., & Masuda, K. (2008). Development of the ability to lexically encode novel second language phonemic contrasts. Second Language Research, 28, 33–35.Google Scholar
Hieke, A. E. (1987). Absorption and fluency in native and non-native casual speech in English, In James, A. and Leather, J. (Eds.), Sound patterns in second language acquisition (pp. 41–58). Foris.Google Scholar
Hogg, R., & McCully, C. B. (1987). Metrical phonology: A course book. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Honikman, B. (1964). Articulatory settings. In Abercrombie, D., Fry, D. B., MacCarthy, P. A. D., Scott, N. C. & Trim, J. L. M. (Eds.), In honour of Daniel Jones (pp. 73–84). Longman.Google Scholar
Howard, I. S., & Messum, P. (2011). Modelling the development of pronunciation in infant speech acquisition. Motor Control, 15(1), 85–17.Google Scholar
Hulst, H. van der (2014). Word stress: Theoretical and typological issues. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
IPA. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, T. (Ed.). (2016). Pronunciation in the classroom: The overlooked essential. TESOL Press.Google Scholar
Jusczyk, P. W., & Derrah, C. (1987). Representation of speech sounds by young infants. Developmental Psychology, 23(5), 648–654Google Scholar
Kang, O., Thomson, R. I., & Murphy, J. M. (Eds.). (2018). The Routledge handbook of contemporary English pronunciation. Routledge.Google Scholar
Kessler, G. (2018). Technology and the future of language teaching. Foreign Language Annals, 51(1), 205–218.Google Scholar
Kissling, E. M. (2013). Teaching pronunciation: Is explicit phonetics instruction beneficial for FL learners? Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 720–744.Google Scholar
Koehler, M., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60–70.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P. (2001). Vowels and consonants: An introduction to the study of languages. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P., & Johnson, K. (2011). A course in phonetics (8th ed). Wadsworth Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers. University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2017). Complexity theory: The lessons continue. In Ortega, L. & Han, Z. H. (Eds.), Complexity theory and language development: In celebration of Diane Larsen-Freeman (pp. 11–50). John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Lee, J. (2001). Korean speakers. In Swan, M. & Smith, B. (Eds.), Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (pp. 325–342). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J., Jang, J., & Plonsky, L. (2015). The effectiveness of second language pronunciation instruction: A meta-analysis. Applied Linguistics, 36(3), 345–366.Google Scholar
Levis, J., & Pickering, L. (2004). Teaching intonation in discourse using speech visualization technology. System, 32(4), 505–524.Google Scholar
Levis, J. M. (1999). Intonation in theory and practice, revisited. TESOL Quarterly, 33(1), 37–63.Google Scholar
Levis, J. M. (2005). Changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 369–377.Google Scholar
Levis, J. M. (2018). Intelligibility, oral communication, and the teaching of pronunciation. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Levis, J. M., & Levis, G. M. (2018). Teaching high-value pronunciation features: Contrastive stress for intermediate learners. CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 139–160.Google Scholar
Levis, J. M., & Wichmann, A. (2015). English intonation – form and meaning. In Reed, M. & Levis, J. (Eds.), The handbook of English pronunciation (pp. 139–155). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Lewis, C., & Deterding, D. (2018). Word stress and pronunciation teaching in English as a lingua franca contexts. CATESOL Journal, 30(1), 161–176.Google Scholar
Li, X. (2017). The construction of intelligent English teaching model based on artificial intelligence. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 12(12), 35–44.Google Scholar
Liu, D., & Reed, M. (2021). Exploring the complexity of the L2 intonation system: An acoustic and eye-tracking study. Frontiers in Communication, 6, 627316. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.627316.Google Scholar
Low, E. L., Grabe, E., & Nolan, F. (2000). Quantitative characterization of speech rhythm: Syllable-timing in Singapore English. Language and Speech, 43(4), 377–401.Google Scholar
Lowie, W., & Bultena, S. (2007). Articulatory settings and the dynamics of second language speech production. In Maidman, J. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Phonetics Teaching and Learning Conference, London. UCL European Institute.Google Scholar
Lu, X. (2018). Natural language processing and intelligent computer‐assisted language learning (ICALL). In Liontas, J. I. (Ed.), The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching (pp. 1–6). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
MacMahon, A. (1996). Phonetic notation. In Daniels, P. T. & Bright, W. (Eds.), The world’s writing systems (pp. 821–846). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. (2013). Voicing in plosives and fricatives. In Dryer, M. S. & Haspelmath, M. (Eds.), The world atlas of language structures online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. https://wals.info/chapter/4.Google Scholar
McCrocklin, S. (2019). Dictation programs for second language pronunciation learning: Perceptions of the transcript, strategy use and improvement. Konińskie Studia Językowe, 7(2), 137–157.Google Scholar
McCrocklin, S., & Edalatishams, I. (2020). Revisiting popular speech recognition software for ESL speech. TESOL Quarterly, 54(4), 1086–1097.Google Scholar
McNerney, M., & Mendelsohn, D. (1992). Suprasegmentals in the pronunciation class: Setting priorities. In Avery, P. & Ehrlich, S. (Eds.), Teaching American English pronunciation (pp. 185–196). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mehler, J., Jusczyk, P., Lambertz, G., Halsted, N., Bertoncini, J., & Amiel-Tison, C. (1988). A precursor of language acquisition in young infants. Cognition, 29(2), 143–178.Google Scholar
Mendelsohn Burns, I., Avery, P., & Ehrlich, S. (1992). Word stress and vowel reductions. In Avery, P. & Ehrlich, S. (Eds.), Teaching American English pronunciation (pp. 63–72). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Messum, P., & Young, R. (2017). Bringing the English articulatory setting into the classroom: (1) the tongue. Speak Out, 57, 29–39.Google Scholar
Miller, S. (2011). Integrating pronunciation into your IEP curriculum. Presented at the TESOL 45th Annual International Convention and Exposition, New Orleans, LA, March 2011.Google Scholar
Mixdorff, H. (2000). A novel approach to the fully automatic extraction of Fujisaki model parameters. In 2000 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing. Proceedings (Cat. No. 00CH37100) (Vol. 3, pp. 1281–1284). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.Google Scholar
Mompean, J. A. (2003). Pedagogical tools for teaching articulatory setting. In Solé, M. J. & Recansens, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 1603–1606). Causal Productions.Google Scholar
Mompean, J. A. (2017). Doing phonetic transcription in a modern language degree. In Cutillas Espinosa, J. A., Hernández Campoy, J. M., Manchón Ruiz, R. M. & Mena Martínez, F. (Eds.), Estudios de Filología Inglesa: Homenaje a D. Rafael Monroy (pp. 479–505). Editum.Google Scholar
Mompean, J. A., & Fouz-González, J. (2021). Phonetic symbols in contemporary pronunciation instruction. Regional Language Centre Journal, 52(1), 155–168.Google Scholar
Monk, B., & Burak, A. (2001). Russian speakers. In Swan, M. & Smith, B. (Eds.), Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (pp. 145–161). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Morett, L. (2014). When hands speak louder than words: The role of gesture in the communication, encoding, and recall of words in a novel second language. Modern Language Journal, 98, 834–853.Google Scholar
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (2015). Intelligibility in research and practice. In Reed, M. & Levis, J. M. (Eds.), The handbook of English pronunciation (pp. 375–396). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Murphy, J. (2014). Myth 7: Teacher training programs provide adequate preparation in how to teach pronunciation. In Grant, L. (Ed.), Pronunciation myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching (pp. 188–224). University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, J., & Kandil, M. (2004). Word-level stress patterns in the academic word list. System, 32(1), 61–74.Google Scholar
Nilsen, D. L. F., & Pace Nilsen, A. (2010). Pronunciation contrasts in English (2nd ed.). Waveland Press Inc.Google Scholar
O’Brien, M. G., Derwing, T. M., Cucchiarini, C., et al. (2018). Directions for the future of technology in pronunciation research and teaching. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 4(2), 182–207.Google Scholar
Paunović, T., & Savić, M. (2008). Discourse intonation – Making it work. In S. Komar & U. Mozetić (Eds.), As you write it: Issues in literature, language, and translation in the context of Europe in the 21st century. English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries, 5(1–2), 57–75.Google Scholar
Pickering, L. (2006). Current research on intelligibility in English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 219–213.Google Scholar
Pickering, L. (2018). Discourse intonation: A discourse-pragmatic approach to teaching the pronunciation of English. University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Pierrehumbert, J. B. (1980). The phonology and phonetics of English intonation (PhD diss., MIT). Published 1990 by Garland Press.Google Scholar
Przedlacka, J. (2018). An overview of phonetics for language teachers. In Kang, O. et al. (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of contemporary English pronunciation (pp. 40–57). Routledge.Google Scholar
Quam, C., & Swingley, D. (2012). Development in children’s interpretation of pitch cues to emotions. Child Development, 83(1), 236–250.Google Scholar
Reed, M., & Levis, J. M. (2015). The handbook of English pronunciation. Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Reed, M., & Michaud, C. (2015). Intonation in research and practice. In Reed, M. & Levis, J. (2015). The handbook of English pronunciation (pp. 454–470). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Roach, P. (1982). On the distinction between ‘stress-timed’ and ‘syllable-timed’ languages. In Crystal, D. (Ed.), Linguistic controversies (pp. 73–79). Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rogerson-Revell, P. (2018). English vowels and consonants. In Kang, O. et al. (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of contemporary English pronunciation (pp. 93–121). Routledge.Google Scholar
Saito, K. (2007). The influence of explicit phonetic instruction on pronunciation in EFL settings: The case of English vowels and Japanese learners of English. Linguistics Journal, 2(3),17–41.Google Scholar
Saito, K. (2012). Effects of instruction on L2 pronunciation development: A synthesis of 15 quasi-experimental intervention studies. TESOL Quarterly, 46(4), 842–854.Google Scholar
Salcedo, C. (2010). The phonological system of Spanish. Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas, 5, 195–209.Google Scholar
Scherling, J. (2012). Japanizing English: Anglicisms and their impact on Japanese. Narr Verlag.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. (2012). Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language learning. In Chan, W. M., Chin, K. N., Bhatt, S. & Walker, I. (Eds.), Perspectives on individual characteristics and foreign language education (pp. 27–50). De Gruyter Mouton.Google Scholar
Schwaber, K., & Beedle, M. (2002). Agile software development with Scrum. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10(1–4), 209–232. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209.Google Scholar
Smith, B. (2001). Arabic speakers. In Swan, M. & Smith, B. (Eds.), Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (pp. 195–213). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Smyth, D. (2001). Thai speakers. In Swan, M. & Smith, B. (Eds.), Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (pp. 343–356). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stone, M. (2010). Laboratory techniques for investigating speech articulation. In Hardcastle, W. J., Laver, J. & Gibbon, F. E. (Eds.), The handbook of phonetic sciences (2nd ed.) (pp. 9–38). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Swan, M., & Smith, B. (Eds.). (2001). Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, K., & Thompson, S. (2015). Color vowelTM chart (4th ed.). English Language Training Solutions. https://learn.colorvowel.com/.Google Scholar
Taylor, K., & Thompson, S., & Barr., R. (2016). The color vowel approach: Resources for connecting spoken English to vocabulary, reading, and spelling. English Language Training Solutions.Google Scholar
Thomson, R. I. (2018). High variability [pronunciation] training (HVPT): A proven technique about which every language teacher and learner ought to know. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 4(2), 208–231.Google Scholar
Thomson, R. I., & Derwing, T. M. (2015). The effectiveness of L2 pronunciation instruction: A narrative review. Applied Linguistics, 36(3), 326–344.Google Scholar
Tsunemoto, A., Trofimovich, P., & Kennedy, S. (2020). Pre-service teachers’ beliefs about second language pronunciation teaching, their experience, and speech assessments. Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820937273.Google Scholar
Vandergrift, L., & Goh, C. (2012). Teaching and learning second language listening: Metacognition in action. Routledge.Google Scholar
Vihman, M. (1993). Variable paths to early word production. Journal of Phonetics, 21, 61–82.Google Scholar
Vihman, M. (2014). Phonological development: The first two years (2nd ed.). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Waninge, F., De Bot, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2014). Motivational dynamics in second language learning: Change, stability and context. Modern Language Journal, 98, 704–723.Google Scholar
Wen, Z., Biedron, A., & Skehan, P. (2016). Foreign language aptitude theory: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Language Teaching, 50, 1–31.Google Scholar
Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1983). Developmental changes across childhood in the perception of non-native speech sounds. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 37(2), 278–286.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. (2004). Transmitting tone and intonation simultaneously – the parallel encoding and target approximation (PENTA) model. In Proceedings of international symposium on tonal aspects of languages: With emphasis on tone languages (pp. 215–220).Google Scholar
Yong, J. Y. (2001). Malay/Indonesian speakers. In Swan, M. & Smith, B. (Eds.), Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (pp. 279–295). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zielinski, B. (2015). The segmental/suprasegmental debate. In Reed, M. & Levis, J. (Eds.), The handbook of English pronunciation (pp. 397–412). Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Zielinski, B., & Yates, L. (2014). Myth 2: Pronunciation instruction is not appropriate for beginning-level learners. In Grant, L. (Ed.), Pronunciation myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching (pp. 56–79). University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar