Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T14:55:47.042Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Global Changes in Children's Lives

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 December 2018

Uwe P. Gielen
Affiliation:
St Francis College, New York
Sunghun Kim
Affiliation:
St Francis College, New York

Summary

This Element compares the nature of childhood in four representative societies differing in their subsistence activities: bands of Australian hunter-gatherers, Tibetan nomadic pastoralists, peasants and farmers residing in Maya villages and towns, and South Korean students growing up in a digital information society. In addition, the Element traces a variety of intertwined global changes that have led to sharply reduced child mortality rates, shrinking family sizes, contested gender roles, increased marriage ages, long-term enrollment of children (especially girls in educational institutions), and the formation of 'glocal' identities.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781108594011
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 20 December 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahmed, R. A., & Gielen, U. P. (2017). Women in Egypt. In Brown, C., Gielen, U. P., Gibbons, J. L., & Kuriansky, J., eds., Women’s Evolving Lives: Global and Psychosocial Perspectives. New York, NY: Springer, pp. 91116.Google Scholar
Ali, N., & Minoui, D. (2010). I Am Nujood, Age 10 and Divorced. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press.Google Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54, 317326.Google Scholar
Atkinson, C. (2009). The Violence Continuum: Australian Aboriginal Male Violence and Generational Post-Traumatic Stress. Saarbrücken, Germany: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing.Google Scholar
Australian Institute of Family Studies (2017). Child Protection and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children (CFCA Resource Sheet, August 2017).Google Scholar
Bangsbo, E. (2008). Schooling for knowledge and cultural survival: Tibetan community schools in nomadic herding areas. Educational Review, 69, 6984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bank of Korea. (2018). Economic Statistics System: 100 Korean STAT – GNI per Capita. Retrieved on June 25, 2018, from https://ecos.bok.or.kr/EIndex_en.jsp.Google Scholar
Baring, M. (2018). Mongolian herders leave nomadic lifestyle for the city. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved on June 12, 2018, from www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2018/0503/Mongolian-herders-leave-nomadic-lifestyle-for-the-city.Google Scholar
Barry, H. III, Child, I. L., & Bacon, M. K. (1959). Relation of child training to subsistence economy. American Anthropologist, 61(1), 5163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckwith, C., & Fisher, A. (1999). African Ceremonies, 2 vols. New York, NY: Abrams.Google Scholar
Broome, R. (2010). Aboriginal Australians: A History since 1788, 4th edn. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Buti, T. (2002). The removal of Aboriginal children: Canada and Australia compared. University of Western Sydney Law Review, 6, 2537.Google Scholar
Byun, T. S. (2014, December 8). 76% of respondents said, “Educational attainments determine one’s life”: Academic success is still too important. Hankook Ilbo. Retrieved on June 24, 2018, from www.hankookilbo.com/v/7bed26d7e0cf4e3aa8be46c01ba7ca66.Google Scholar
Cain, M. T. (1980). The economic activities in Bangladesh. In Evenson, R. E., Florencio, C. A., & White, F. B. N., eds., Rural Household Studies in Asia. Kent Ridge, Singapore: Singapore University Press, pp. 188217.Google Scholar
Caldwell, B. K., & Caldwell, J. C. (2005). Family size control by infanticide in the great agrarian societies of Asia. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 36(2), 205226.Google Scholar
Cameron, N., & Bogin, B. (eds.). (2012). Human Growth and Development, 2nd edn. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). (2018). The World Factbook. Available at: www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/.Google Scholar
Chun, J. (2004). Daily schedule for 12th graders: Lifestyles of 12th graders in South Korea. OhmyNews. Retrieved on June 24, 2018, from www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/Articleview/article_print.aspx?cntn_cd=A0000207861.Google Scholar
Codding, B. F. (2016). Why Forage? Hunters and Gatherers in the Twenty-First Century. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Correa-Chávez, M., & Rogoff, B. (2009). Children’s attention to interactions directed to others: Guatemalan and European American patterns. Developmental Psychology, 45, 630641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosminsky, S. (2016). Midwives and Mothers: The Medicalization of Childbirth on a Guatemalan Plantation. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Dollfus, P. (2013). Transformation processes in nomadic pastoralism in Ladakh. Himalaya, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies, 32(1–2), 6172.Google Scholar
Eickelkamp, U. (2011a). Changing selves in remote Australia? Observations on Aboriginal family life, childhood and “modernization.” Anthropological Forum, 21(2), 131151.Google Scholar
Eickelkamp, U. (ed.). (2011b). Growing Up in Central Australia: New Anthropological Studies of Aboriginal Childhood and Adolescence. New York, NY: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Ekvall, R. B. (1961). The nomadic patterns of living among the Tibetans as preparation for war. American Anthropologist, 63(6), 12501263.Google Scholar
Ekvall, R. B. (1968). Fields on the Hoof: Nexus of Tibetan Nomadic Pastoralism. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Ember, C. R., & Ringen, E. J. (2017). Childhood. Human Relations Area Files. Retrieved on November 19, 2018, from http://hraf.yale.edu/ehc/summaries/childhood.Google Scholar
End Child Prostitution and Trafficking (ECPAT). (2018). Regional overview: Sexual exploitation of children in Southeast Asia. Retrieved June 18, 2018, from www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Regional-Overview_Southeast-Asia.pdf.Google Scholar
Ferguson, G. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Remote acculturation: The “Americanization” of Jamaican islanders. Child Development, 83(5), 14861493.Google Scholar
Gakidu, E., Crowling, K., Lozano, R., & Murray, C. J. L. (2010). Increased educational attainment and its effect on child mortality in 175 countries between 1970 and 2009: A systematic analysis. Lancet, 376, 959974.Google Scholar
Gaskins, S. (2000). Children’s daily activities in a Mayan village: A culturally grounded description. Cross-Cultural Research, 34, 375389.Google Scholar
Gaskins, S. (2003). From corn to cash: Change and continuity within Mayan families. Ethos, 31(2), 248273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaskins, S. (2006). The cultural organization of Yucatec Mayan children’s social interactions. In Chen, X., French, D. C., & Schneider, B. H., eds., Peer Relationships in Cultural Context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 283309.Google Scholar
Gibbons, J. L. (2000). Personal and social development of adolescents: Integrating findings from preindustrial and modern industrialized societies. In Comunian, A. L. & Gielen, U. P., eds., International Perspectives on Human Development. Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science Publishers, pp. 403429.Google Scholar
Gielen, U. P. (1993). Gender roles in traditional Tibetan cultures. In Adler, L. L., ed., International Handbook on Gender Roles. Westport, CT: Greenwood, pp. 413437.Google Scholar
Gielen, U. P. (2016). The changing lives of 2.2 billion children: Global demographics trends and economic disparities. In Gielen, U. P. & Roopnarine, J. L., eds., Childhood and Adolescence: Cross-Cultural Perspectives and Applications, 2nd edn. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, pp. 6395.Google Scholar
Gielen, U. P., & Roopnarine, J. L. (eds.). (2016). Childhood and Adolescence: Cross-Cultural Perspectives and Applications, 2nd edn. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.Google Scholar
Goldin, L. R. (2011). Global Work and Ideology in Rural Guatemala, 2nd edn. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Greenfield, P. M., Keller, H., Fuligni, A., & Maynard., A. (2003). Cultural pathways through universal development. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 461490.Google Scholar
Gurven, M., & Kaplan, H. (2007). Longevity among hunter-gatherers: A cross-cultural examination. Population and Development Review, 33(2), 321365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haines, M. R. (1994). NBR working paper series, The Population of the United States, 1790–1920.Google Scholar
Hamilton, A. (1980). Dual social systems: Technology, labour and women’s secret rites in the Eastern Western Desert of Australia. Oceania, 51, 419. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1980.tb01416.xGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, A. (1981). Nature and Nurture: Aboriginal Child-Rearing in North Central Arnhem Land. Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.Google Scholar
Hermanns, M. (1959). Die Familie der A mdo-Tibeter [The Family of the A mdo-Tibetans]. Freiburg/B., Germany: Verlag Karl Alber.Google Scholar
Hernández, D. J. (1994). Children’s changing access to resources: A historical perspective. Society for Research in Child Development Social Policy Report, 8, 123.Google Scholar
Hernández, T. (1941). Children among the Drysdale River tribes. Oceania, 12(3), 122133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewlett, B. S. (ed.). (2014). Hunter-Gatherers of the Congo Basin: Culture, History and Biology of African Pygmies. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Hewlett, B. S., & Lamb, M. E. (eds.). (2005). Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods: Evolutionary, Developmental and Cultural Perspectives. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Institute for Economics and Peace (2016). Australian Youth Development Index: A Jurisdictional Overview of Youth Development. Melbourne, Australia: Victoria University. Retrieved on June 5, 2018, from www.documentcloud.org/documents/3010514-Australian-Youth-Development-Index-report.html#document/p2.Google Scholar
International Labour Office. (2017). Global Estimates of Child Labour: Results and Trends, 2012–2016. Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved on May 18, 2018, from www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_575499.pdf.Google Scholar
Isom, J. (2009). Tibet’s nomadic pastoralists: Tradition, transformation and prospects. Indigenous Affairs, 3–4, 613.Google Scholar
Jarrett, S. (2013). Liberating Aboriginal People from Violence. Ballan, Australia: Connor Court Publishing.Google Scholar
Kağitçibaşi, Ç., & Ataca, B. (2005). Value of children and family change: A three-decade portrait from Turkey. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 54(3), 317337. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00213.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, R. L. (2013). The Lifeways of Hunter-Gatherers: The Foraging Spectrum. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, E. S. (2018). [Why] “Spring is crazy season” for 8th graders in Daechi-dong. Chosun Ilbo. Retrieved on June 23, 2018, from http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2018/03/16/2018031601528.html.Google Scholar
Kim, H. (2018). Sixty 4-year colleges may have no freshmen students in 2020: The root of education is being shaken. MK News. Retrieved on June 23, 2018, from http://news.mk.co.kr/v7/newsPrint.php?year=2018&no=384292.Google Scholar
Kim, S. W. (2017). President Moon decided the postponement of the national college entrance exam. Yonhap News. Retrieved on June 23, 2018, from www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/11/17/0200000000AKR20171117051100001.HTML.Google Scholar
Klinenberg, E. (2013). Going Solo: The Extraordinary Rise and Surprising Appeal of Living Alone. New York, NY: Penguin.Google Scholar
Korea Consumer Agency. (2015). Research: Private education for elementary students and their expenses. Retrieved on June 24, 2018, from http://data.noworry.kr/130?category=449237.Google Scholar
Korea Health Promotion Institute. (2014). Research: Adolescents’ Perceptions of Health. Seoul, ROC: Korea Health Promotion Institute.Google Scholar
Korean Educational Development Institute. (2017). Statistical Yearbook of Education. Retrieved on June 23, 3018, from http://std.kedi.re.kr/mobile/publ/publFile?survSeq=2017&menuSeq=3894&publSeq=2&menuCd=70123&menuId=1_7_7&itemCode=02.Google Scholar
Kramer, K. L. (2005). Maya Children: Helpers at the Farm. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lancy, D. F. (2015). The Anthropology of Childhood: Cherubs, Chattel, Changelings, 2nd edn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Larson, R. W., & Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend time across the world: Work, play, and developmental opportunities. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 701736.Google Scholar
Lee, D. H. (2012). English kindergarten: Children’s hell created by parents’ greed. Pressian. Retrieved on June 22, 2018, from http://m.pressian.com/news/article_print.html?no=40070.Google Scholar
Lee, J.-W., & Lee, H. (2016). Human capital in the long run. Journal of Development Economics, 122, 147169.Google Scholar
Lee, J. Y. (2018). There are 160 English kindergartens in Seoul: Monthly tuition can be up to 1,760,000 KRW (1,760 USD). Yonhap News. Retrieved on June 22, 2018, from www.yonhapnews.co.kr/dev/9601000000.htmlGoogle Scholar
Lee, R. B. (2012). The Dobe Ju/‘Hoansi, 4th edn. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Lehmann, P. H., & Ullal, J. (1981). Tibet: Das stille Drama auf dem Dach der Welt [Tibet: The Quiet Drama on the Roof of the World]. Hamburg, Germany: Geo.Google Scholar
Lenski, G. (2005). Ecological-Evolutionary Theory: Principles and Applications. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.Google Scholar
Lesthaeghe, R. J. (2011). The “Second Demographic Transition”: A conceptual map for the understanding of late modern demographic developments in fertility and family formation. Historical Social Research, 36(2), 179218.Google Scholar
LeVine, R. A. (1988). Human parental care. New Directions for Child Development, 40, 312.Google Scholar
LeVine, R. A., LeVine, S. E., Schnell-Anzola, B., Rowe, M. L., & Dexter, E. (2016). Literacy and Mothering: How Women’s Schooling Changes the Lives of the World’s Children, reprint edn. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lew-Levy, S., Lavi, N., Reckin, R., Cristóbal-Azkarate, J., & Ellis-Davies, K. (2018). How do hunter-gatherer children learn social and gender norms? Cross-Cultural Research, 52(2), 213255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malin, M., Campbell, K., & Agius, L. (1996). Raising Children in the Nunga Aboriginal Way. Australian Institute of Family Studies: Family Matters No.43. Retrieved on June 17, 2018, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.603.791&rep=rep1&type=pdf.Google Scholar
Martinéz-Pérez, M. (2015). Adults’ orientation of children – and children’s initiative to pitch in – to everyday adult activities in a Tsotsil Maya community. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 49, 113135.Google Scholar
Mawhinney, S. E. (2015). Coming of Age: Youth in England, c. 1400–1600. PhD Dissertation, History, University of York, UK.Google Scholar
Maynard, A. E. (2002). Cultural teaching: The development of teaching skills in Maya sibling interactions. Child Development, 73(3), 969982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlade, H. (2012). Our Greatest Challenge: Aboriginal Children and Human Rights. Canberra, Australia: Aboriginal Studies Press.Google Scholar
Miller, D. J. (2007). The world of Tibetan nomads. Retrieved on April 18, 2018, from https://case.edu/affil/tibet/documents/TheWorldofTibetanNomadsSept14.pdf.Google Scholar
Mintz, S. (2006). Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Nam, J. (2017). Young people think of test scores as the fairest. Kyunghyang Shinmun. Retrieved on June 22, 2018, from http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201712182154005.Google Scholar
National Youth Commission. (2005). Report: Elementary, Middle, and High School Students’ Lifestyles for Holidays and after School Hours. Seoul, ROC: National Youth Commission.Google Scholar
National Youth Policy Institute. (2014). Statistics for South Korean Children’s and Adolescents’ Human Rights Situations. Seoul, ROC: National Youth Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Newton, B. J. (2017). An Aboriginal community’s perceptions and experiences of child neglect in a rural town. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 52(3), 6277.Google Scholar
No Worry. (2014). Research: Private education for mathematics. Retrieved on June 22, 2018, from http://data.noworry.kr/33.Google Scholar
Nolan, P., & Lenski, G. (2014). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nulo, N. (2014). My Tibetan Childhood: When Ice Shattered Stone. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Oh, K. (2018). Worst study plan mentioned by “Master of Study” Kang S. SBS News. Retrieved on June 22, 2018, from https://news.sbs.co.kr/news/endPage.do?news_id=N1004678640.Google Scholar
O’Loughlin, T. (2009). Mixed marriage rates rise in Australia. The Guardian (Australia). Retrieved on November 19, 2018, from www.theguardian.com/world/2009/apr/06/aborigines-australia-marriage.Google Scholar
Penman, R. (2006). The “Growing Up” of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children: A Literature Review. Canberra, Australia: Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, Australian Government.Google Scholar
Postiglione, G. A., Jiao, B., & Goldstein, M. C. (2011). Education in the Tibetan Autonomous Region: Policies and practices in rural nomadic communities. In Ryan, J., ed., Education Reform in China: Changing Concepts, Contexts and Practices. London, UK: Routledge, pp. 92109.Google Scholar
Reich, D. (2018). Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past. New York, NY: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Ripley, A. (2011). South Korea: Kids, stop studying so hard! TIME. Retrieved on June 22, 2018, from http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2094427,00.html.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B. (2011). Developing Destinies: A Mayan Midwife and Town. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rogoff, B., Sellers, M. J., Pirrotta, S., Fox, N., & White, S. H. (1975). Age of assignment of roles and responsibilities to children. Human Development, 18, 353369.Google Scholar
Rohner, R. P. (1975). They Love Me, They Love Me Not: A Worldwide Study of the Effects of Parental Acceptance and Rejection. New Haven, CT: HRAF Press.Google Scholar
Roscoe, P. (2006). Fish, game, and the foundations of complexity in forager society: The evidence from New Guinea. Cross-Cultural Research, 40(1), 2946.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roser, M. (2017). Fertility. Retrieved on November 17, 2017, from https://ourworldindata.org/fertility/.Google Scholar
Roser, M. (2018a). Our world in data. Available from https://ourworldindata.org/child-mortality.Google Scholar
Roser, M. (2018b). Fertility Rate. Retrieved on May 18, 2018, from https://ourworldindata.org/fertility-rate.Google Scholar
Roser, M. (2018c). Our world in data. Available from https://ourworldindata.org/Google Scholar
Roser, M., & Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2018b). Literacy. Retrieved on May 18, 2018, from https://ourworldindata.org/literacy.Google Scholar
Roser, M., & Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2018a). World Population Growth. Retrieved on May 16, 2018, from https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth.Google Scholar
Royal Commission and Board of Inquiry into Protection and Detention Systems of the Northern Territories (November 2017). Report Vols. 1–4 and Media Release.Google Scholar
Santos, H. C., Varnum, M. E. W., & Grossmann, I. (2017). Global increases in individualism. Association for Psychological Science, 28(9), 12281239. doi: 10.1177/0956797617700622Google Scholar
Schlegel, A., & Barry, H. III. (1991). Adolescence: An Anthropological Inquiry. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar
Schlesinger, S. C., Kinzer, S., & Coatsworth, J. H. (2005). Bitter Fruit, 2nd edn. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies.Google Scholar
Schneider, N. (2016). The monastery in a Tibetan pastoralist context: A case study from Kham Minyag. Études mongoles et sibériennes, centralasiatiques et tibétaines (online version), 1–18. Retrieved on September 20, 2018, from http://emscat.revues.org/2798.Google Scholar
Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Care (SNAICC). (2011). Growing Up Our Way: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Rearing Practices Matrix. North Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia. Retrieved on July 20, 2018, from www.health.act.gov.au/sites/default/files/SNAICC%20Growing%20up%20our%20way%20Aboriginal%20and%20Torres%20Strait%20Islander%20Child%20Rearing%20Practicestrix.pdf.Google Scholar
Seth, M. J. (2002). Education Fever: Society, Politics, and the Pursuit of Schooling in South Korea. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Seth, M. J. (2010). A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Seymour, S. C. (2010). Environmental change, family adaptations, and child development: Longitudinal research in India. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41(4), 578591.Google Scholar
Statistics Korea. (2012). 2017 Statistics for Adolescents: Press Release. Seoul, ROC: Statistics Korea & Ministry of Gender Equality and Family.Google Scholar
Stollak, I., Valdez, M., Rivas, K., & Perry, H. (2016). Casas Maternas in the rural highlands of Guatemala: A mixed-methods case study of the introduction and utilization of birthing facilities by an Indigenous population. Global Health: Science and Practice, 4(1), 114131.Google ScholarPubMed
Stearns, N. P. (2017). Childhood in World History, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Tan, G. G. (2017). In the Circle of White Stones: Moving through Seasons with Nomads of Eastern Tibet. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
The Economist. (2015). Education in South Korea: The crème de la cram – Korean kids with pushy parents use crammers to get into crammers. The Economist. Retrieved on June 25, 2018, from www.economist.com/asia/2015/09/19/the-creme-de-la-cram.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, J. B. (1999). Globalization and Culture. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). (2018). Progress for Every Child in the SDG Era. Retrieved on May 12, 2018, from www.data.unicef.org.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The State of the World’s Children 2016: A Fair Chance for Every Child. Retrieved on September 22, 2017, from www.unicef.org/sowc2016/.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The State of the World’s Children 2017: Children in a Digital World. Retrieved on May 18, 2018, from www.unicef.org/publications/files/SOWC_2017_ENG_WEB.pdf.Google Scholar
UNICEF, USA. (2018). Syrian Crisis. Retrieved on May 21, 2018, from www.unicefusa.org/mission/emergencies/child-refugees/syria-crisis.Google Scholar
UNICEF Global Databases (data.unicef.org): Education: Primary Net Attendance Ratio – Percentage. Retrieved on June 18, 2018, from https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/primary-education/.Google Scholar
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics (2017). Fact Sheet No. 45: Literacy Rates Continue to Rise from One Generation to the Next. Retrieved on June 18, 2018, from http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs45-literacy-rates-continue-rise-generation-to-next-en-2017_0.pdf.Google Scholar
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics (2018). Fact Sheet No. 48. Downloaded on June 22, 2018 from http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs48-one-five-children-adolescents-youth-out-school-2018-en.pdfGoogle Scholar
United Nations General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved on November 19, 2018, from www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx.Google Scholar
United Nations Population Division (2017). Marriage Data 2017. Retrieved on June 7, 2018, from www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/theme/marriage-unions/WMD2017.shtml.Google Scholar
Volk, A. A., & Atkinson, J. A. (2013). Infant and child death in the human environment of evolutionary adaptation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34, 182192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiting, B. B., & Edwards, C. (1988). Children of Different Worlds: The Formation of Social Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wikipedia. (2018a). Agriculture. Retrieved on May 16, 2018, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture.Google Scholar
Wikipedia. (2018b). 1800 United States Census. Retrieved on June 7, 2018, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1800_United_States_Census.Google Scholar
World Economic Forum & INSEAD. (2016). The Global Information Technology Report 2016: Innovating in the Digital Economy. Baller, S., Dutta, S., & Lanvin, B., eds. Geneva, Switzerland: World Economic Forum & INSEAD. Retrieved on June 25, 2018, from www.weforum.org/gitr.Google Scholar
Yoo, S. (2017). [2018 College Entrance Exam]. The number of test takers reduced by 12,460, while re-takers increased by 2,412. Study News: Internet Newspaper for College Entrance Exam. Retrieved on June 25, 2018, from www.studynews.net/2017/09/13/.Google Scholar
Yu, S. (2017). One out of ten 4~6th graders are addicted to smartphones, female students more. Joongang Ilbo. Retrieved on June 25, 2018, from news.joins.com/article/print/21976298.Google Scholar
Zeller, A. C. (1987). A role for women in hominid evolution. Man, 22(3), 528557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Global Changes in Children's Lives
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Global Changes in Children's Lives
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Global Changes in Children's Lives
Available formats
×