Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T05:51:41.401Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
Series:   Elements in Campaigns and Elections

The Social Origins of Electoral Participation in Emerging Democracies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 August 2023

Danielle F. Jung  and
James D. Long
Danielle F. Jung
Affiliation:
Emory University, Atlanta
James D. Long
Affiliation:
University of Washington

Summary

Given the enormous challenges they face, why do so many citizens in developing countries routinely turn out to vote? This Element explores a new explanation grounded in the social origins of electoral participation in emerging democracies, where mobilization requires local collective action. This Element argues that, beyond incentives to express ethnic identity and vote-buying, perceptions of social sanctioning from community-based formal and informal actors galvanize many to vote who might otherwise stay home. Sanctioning is reinforced by the ability to monitor individual turnout given the open layout and centralized locations of polling stations and the use of electoral ink that identifies voters. This argument is tested using original survey and qualitative data from Africa and Afghanistan, contributing important insights on the nature of campaigns and elections in the promotion of state-building and service delivery, and the critical role voters play reducing fears of global democratic backsliding.
Get access

Keywords

Social sanctioningdeveloping countriesturnoutcollective actionelections
Type
Element
Information
Series: Elements in Campaigns and Elections
Online ISBN: 9781009110280
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 07 September 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Al-Jazeera. 2019. “Voter Turnout Falls Sharply in Afghan Presidential Election.” November 29. www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/9/29/voter-turnout-falls-sharply-in-afghan-presidential-election.Google Scholar
Alizada, Nazifa, Rowan, Cole, Lisa, Gastaldi, et al. 2021. Autocratization Turns Viral: Democracy Report 2021.Gothenburg: University of Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute.Google Scholar
Ames, David W. 1959. “Wolof Co-operative Work Groups.” In Continuity and Change in African Cultures, ed. Bascom, William and Herskovitz, Melville J.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Asia Foundation. 2019. A Survey of the Afghan People: Afghanistan in 2019. San Francisco: The Asia Foundation.Google Scholar
Atkinson, Matthew D., and Fowler, Anthony. 2014. “Social Capital and Voter Turnout.” British Journal of Political Science 44(1): 41–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, Kate. 2016. The Paradox of Traditional Chiefs in Democratic Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Banerjee, Mukulika. 2007. “Sacred Elections.” Economic and Political Weekly 42(17): 1556–62.Google Scholar
Barfield, Thomas. 2010. Afghanistan. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Barkan, Joel. 1997. “African Elections in Comparative Perspective.” In Elections: Perspectives on Establishing Democratic Practices, ed. United Nations Department for Development Support and Management Services. New York: United Nations Department for Development Support and Management Services, 3–27. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/247744/files/ST_TCD_SER.E_31-EN.pdf.Google Scholar
Bauer, Michal, Blattman, Christopher, Chytilová, Julie, et al. 2016. “Can War Foster Cooperation?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 30(3): 249–74.Google Scholar
BBC. 2008. “Tsvangirai Rejects ‘Sham’ Ballot.” June 27. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7478399.stm.Google Scholar
Beaulieu, Emily. 2014. Electoral Protest and Democracy in the Developing World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bekoe, Dorina A., and Burchard, Stephanie M.. 2017. “The Contradictions of Pre-election Violence.” African Studies Review 60(2): 73–92.Google Scholar
Berman, Eli, Callen, Michael, Gibson, Clark, Long, James D. and Rezaee, Arman. 2019. “Election Fairness and Government Legitimacy in Afghanistan.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 168: 292–317.Google Scholar
Blattman, Christopher, Emeriau, Mathilde, and Fiala, Nathan. 2018. “Do Anti-Poverty Programs Sway Voters?” The Review of Economics and Statistics 100(5): 891–905.Google Scholar
Blattman, Christopher, Larreguy, Horacio, Marx, Benjamin, and Reid, Otis R.. 2019. “Eat Widely, Vote Wisely?” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper. www.nber.org/papers/w26293.Google Scholar
Boulding, Carew, and Holzner, Claudio. 2021. Voice and Inequality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratton, Michael, Mattes, Robert, and Gyimah-Boadi, E.. 2005. Public Opinion, Democracy, and Market Reform in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bukenya, Badru, and Hickey, Sam. 2019. “The Shifting Fortunes of the Economic Technocracy in Uganda: Caught between State-Building and Regime Survival?” Pockets of Effectiveness Working Paper No 5. June 17. Manchester: University of Manchester. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3467495 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3467495.Google Scholar
Burbidge, Dominic. 2014. “‘Can Someone Get Me Outta This Middle Class Zone?!’” The Journal of Modern African Studies 52(2): 205–25.Google Scholar
Byarugaba, Foster. 2003. “Bunyoro Voters Wary of ‘Unholy’ Alliances in 1996 Elections.” In Voting for Democracy in Uganda, ed. Makara, Sabiti, Tukahebwa, Geoffrey B., and Byarugaba, Foster. Kampala: LDC Publishers, 90–115.Google Scholar
Callen, Michael, Gibson, Clark, Jung, Danielle F., and Long, James D.. 2016. “Improving Electoral Integrity with Information and Communications Technology.” Journal of Experimental Political Science 3(1): 4–17.Google Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2004. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cheeseman, Nic, Lynch, Gabrielle, and Willis, Justin. 2021. The Moral Economy of Elections in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Coburn, Noah. 2016. Losing Afghanistan. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Coburn, Noah, and Larson, Anna. 2014. Derailing Democracy in Afghanistan. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Condra, Luke N., Callen, Michael, Iyengar, Radha, Long, James D., and Shapiro, Jacob. 2019. “Damaging Democracy? Security Provision and Turnout in Afghan Elections.” Economics & Politics 31(2): 163–93.Google Scholar
Condra, Luke N., Long, James D., Shaver, Andrew C., and Wright, Austin L.. 2018. “The Logic of Insurgent Electoral Violence.” American Economic Review 108(11): 3199–231.Google Scholar
Darnolf, Staffan, Buril, Fernanda, and Applegate., Meredith 2020. “Indelible Ink in Elections: Mitigating Risks of COVID-19 Transmission While Maintaining Effectiveness.” International Foundation for Electoral Systems. April 15. www.ifes.org/news/indelible-ink-elections-mitigating-risks-covid-19-transmission-while-maintaining-effectiveness.Google Scholar
Dickson, Eric S., and Scheve, Kenneth. 2006. “Social Identity, Political Speech, and Electoral Competition.” Journal of Theoretical Politics 18(1): 5–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobler, Gregor. 2019. “Waiting and Voting in the Village: Election Day 2014 in Odibo, Namibia.” Journal of Namibian Studies 26: 7–28.Google Scholar
Downs, Anthony. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Dreier, Sarah K., Long, James D., and Winkler, Stephen. 2020. “African, Religious, and Tolerant?” Politics and Religion 13(2): 273–303.Google Scholar
Dupuy, Beatrice. 2017. “Kenyan Women Hold Election Sex Strike to Get Their Husbands to Vote Their Candidate.” Newsweek. October 23. www.newsweek.com/women-hold-sex-strike-kenyan-election-690648.Google Scholar
Economist., The 2022. “Afghans Are More Pessimistic about Their Future Than Ever.” January 29. www.economist.com/asia/2022/01/29/afghans-are-more-pessimistic-about-their-future-than-ever.Google Scholar
Economist Intelligence Unit. 2021. Democracy Index 2020: In Sickness and in Health? London: The Economist. www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2020/.Google Scholar
Erlich, Aaron. 2020. “Can Information Campaigns Impact Preferences toward Vote Selling?” International Political Science Review 41(3): 419–35.Google Scholar
Fafchamps, Marcel. 2003. Market Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: Theory and Evidence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferree, Karen E., Gibson, Clark, and Long, James D.. 2014. “Voting Behavior and Electoral Irregularities in Kenya’s 2013 Election.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 8(1): 153–72.Google Scholar
Ferree, Karen E., Gibson, Clark, and Long, James D. 2021. “Mixed Records, Complexity, and Ethnic Voting in African Elections.” World Development 141: 105418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferree, Karen E., Jung, Danielle F., Dowd, Robert A., and Gibson, Clark. 2020. “Election Ink and Turnout in a Partial Democracy.” British Journal of Political Science 50(3): 1175–91.Google Scholar
Ferree, Karen E., and Long, James D.. 2016. “Gifts, Threats, and Perceptions of Ballot Secrecy in African Elections.” African Affairs 115(461): 621–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finan, Frederico, and Schechter, Laura. 2012. “Vote-Buying and Reciprocity.” Econometrica 80(2): 863–81.Google Scholar
France 24. 2017. “Polling Stations Open in Kenya despite Calls for Boycott.” www.france24.com/en/20171026-polling-booths-open-kenya-despite-calls-boycott-vote.Google Scholar
Franklin, Mark N. 2004. Voter Turnout and the Dynamics of Electoral Competition in Established Democracies since 1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gachuhi, Kennedy. 2017. “Bars to Remain Closed on Elections Day.” The Standard. www.standardmedia.co.ke/rift-valley/article/2001250410/bars-to-remain-closed-on-elections-day.Google Scholar
Alan, Gerber, Green, Donald P., and Larimer, Christopher W.. 2008. “Social Pressure and Voter Turnout.” American Political Science Review 102(01): 33–48.Google Scholar
Gibson, Clark, and Long, James D.. 2009. “The Presidential and Parliamentary Elections in Kenya, December 2007.” Electoral Studies 28(3): 497–502.Google Scholar
Gingyera-Pinyewa, A. G. G., and Obong-Oula., Quintas 2003. “The Political ‘Moods’ of Northern Uganda, 1986-96: A Study of the Presidential and Parliamentary Elections.” In Voting for Democracy in Uganda, ed. Makara, S., Tukahebwa, G., and Byarugaba, F.. Kampala: LDC Publishers, 55–89.Google Scholar
Githongo, John. 2007. “Kenya’s Fight against Corruption.” Cato Institute Development Briefing Paper. www.cato.org/development-briefing-paper/kenyas-fight-against-corruption-uneven-path-political-accountability.Google Scholar
Golooba-Mutebi, Frederick, and Hickey, Sam. 2016. “The Master of Institutional Multiplicity?” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10: 601–18.Google Scholar
Gopal, Anand. 2014. No Good Men among the Living. New York: Metropolitan Books.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, Jessica, and Larreguy, Horacio. 2020. “An Informational Theory of Electoral Targeting in Young Clientelistic Democracies.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 15(1): 73–104.Google Scholar
Graphic Online. 2020. “Dumelo Wants Voting Halted at Polling Station over the Absence of Indelible Ink.” www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/dumelo-wants-voting-halted-at-polling-station-over-the-absence-of-indelible-ink.html.Google Scholar
Greif, Avner. 1993. “Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade.” American Economic Review 83(3): 525–48.Google Scholar
Guardado, Jennifer, and Wantchekon, Leonard. 2018. “Do Electoral Handouts Affect Voting Behavior?” Electoral Studies 53 (June): 139–49.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan, and Kaufman, Robert. 2021. “Backsliding: Democratic Regress in the Contemporary World.” Elements in Political Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harding, Robin. 2015. “Attribution and Accountability.” World Politics 67(4): 656–89.Google Scholar
Harris, J. Andrew. 2021. “Election Administration, Resource Allocation, and Turnout.” Comparative Political Studies 54(3–4): 623–51.Google Scholar
Harris, J. Andrew, and Posner, Daniel. 2019. “(Under What Conditions) Do Politicians Reward Their Supporters?” American Political Science Review 113(1): 123–39.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Barak, and Long, James D.. 2013. “Parties, Ethnicity, and Voting in African Elections.” Comparative Politics 45: 127–46.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Jeremy, and Long, James D.. 2016. “Strategic Voting, Information, and Ethnicity in Emerging Democracies: Evidence from Kenya.” Electoral Studies 44(December): 351–61.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel. 1993. The Third Wave. Norman: University of Oklahoma.Google Scholar
Ichino, Nahomi, and Nathan, Noah. 2013. “Crossing the Line” American Political Science Review 107(2): 344–61.Google Scholar
Ichino, Nahomi, and Nathan, Noah 2022. “Democratizing the Party.” British Journal of Political Science 52(3): 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IDEA. 2021. “Voter Turnout Database.” International Idea. www.idea.int/data-tools/country-view/156/40.Google Scholar
Jung, Danielle F. 2012. “Organizational Ecology and Population Dynamics in Politics: An Agent-Based Model.” Doctoral dissertaion, University of California, San Diego.Google Scholar
Jung, Danielle F., and Cohen, Dara Kay. 2020. Lynching and Local Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jung, Danielle F., and Lake, David A.. 2011a. “Markets, Hierarchies, and Networks.” American Journal of Political Science 55(4): 972–90.Google Scholar
Jung, Danielle F., and Lake, David A. 2011b. “Organizations and the Evolution of Cooperation.” Political Networks Conference Paper 5. http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/pnconfs_2011/5.Google Scholar
Kah, Jainaba, Olds, Dana, and Kah, Muhammadou. 2005. “Microcredit, Social Capital, and Politics: The Case of a Small Rural Town – Gossas, Senegal.” Journal of Microfinance/ESR Review 7(1): 121–52.Google Scholar
Kakumba, Makanga Ronald. 2020. “Double Standard? Ugandans See Vote Buying as ‘Wrong and Punishable,’ Vote Selling Less So.” www.afrobarometer.org/publication/ad415-double-standard-ugandans-see-vote-buying-wrong-and-punishable-vote-selling-less/.Google Scholar
Kanyinga, Karuti, Long, James D., and Ndii, David. 2010. “Was It Rigged?” In Tensions and Reversals in Democratic Transitions, ed. Kanyinga, Karuti and Okello, Duncan. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press, 373–414.Google Scholar
Kasara, Kimuli, and Suryanarayan, Pavithra. 2015. “When Do the Rich Vote Less Than the Poor and Why?” American Journal of Political Science 59(3): 613–27.Google Scholar
Khalilzad, Zalmay. 2016. The Envoy. New York: St. Martin’s Press.Google Scholar
Kitschelt, Herbert, and Wilkinson, Steven I.. 2007. Patrons, Clients and Policies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Klaus, Kathleen, and Paller, Jeffrey W.. 2017. “Defending the City, Defending Votes.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 55(4): 681–708.Google Scholar
Kokutse, Francis. 2020. “Ghana Votes for President in Test of Country’s Stability.” Associated Press. December 7. https://apnews.com/article/ghana-coronavirus-pandemic-elections-africa-john-dramani-mahama-1aebbd51adf3a42f92417f8ff33b624e.Google Scholar
Kostelka, Filip. 2017. “Does Democratic Consolidation Lead to a Decline in Voter Turnout?” American Political Science Review 111(4): 653–67.Google Scholar
Kraemer, Richard. 2014. “Can Afghanistan Survive Its Presidential Election?” Foreign Policy Research Institute. August 29. www.fpri.org/article/2014/08/can-afghanistan-survive-its-presidential-election/.Google Scholar
Kramon, Eric. 2016. “Where Is Vote Buying Effective?” Electoral Studies 44: 397–408.Google Scholar
Kuenzi, Michelle, and Gina, M. S. Lambright. 2007. “Voter Turnout in Africa’s Multiparty Regimes.” Comparative Political Studies 40(6): 665–90.Google Scholar
Kuenzi, Michelle, and Gina, M. S. 2011. “Who Votes in Africa?” Party Politics 17(6): 767–99.Google Scholar
Larvie, John. 2008. “Oral History Program Series: Elections.” https://successfulsocieties.princeton.edu/sites/successfulsocieties/files/interviews/transcripts/3230/John_Larvie.txt.Google Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Long, James. D. 2012. “Voting, Fraud, and Violence.” Doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego.Google Scholar
Long, James. D. 2020. “Civil Conflict, Power Sharing, Truth and Reconciliation (2005–2013).” In Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics, ed. Cheeseman, Nic, Kanyinga, Karuti, and Lynch, Gabrielle. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 82–95.Google Scholar
Long, James D., and Gibson, Clark. 2015. “Evaluating the Roles of Ethnicity and Performance in African Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 68(4): 830–42.Google Scholar
Long, James D., Kanyinga, Karuti, Ferree, Karen E., and Gibson, Clark. 2013. “Kenya’s 2013 Elections.” Journal of Democracy 24(3): 140–55.Google Scholar
Lynge-Mangueira, Halfdan. 2013. “How to Rig an Election and What Two Constituencies in Ghana Might Teach Us about Defining and Measuring Electoral Rigging.” Presented at the Electoral Integrity Project Annual Workshop, Weatherhead Center, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Magdy, Samy. 2019. “Rights Group Denounces ‘Unfree and Unfair’ Egyptian Vote.” Associated Press. April 24. https://apnews.com/article/ea048eec24a0417ca0255e1e559a709c.Google Scholar
Makara, Sabiti. 2003a. “Voting for Democracy in Uganda” In Voting for Democracy in Uganda, ed. Makara, Sabiti, Tukahebwa, Geoffrey B., and Byarugaba, Foster. Kampala: LDC Publishers, 1–32.Google Scholar
Makara, Sabiti 2003b. “The Buganda Issues in Electoral Politics during the 1996 Presidential Elections.” In Voting for Democracy in Uganda, ed. Makara, Sabiti, Tukahebwa, Geoffrey B., and Foster, Byarugaba. Kampala: LDC Publishers, 116–35.Google Scholar
Mares, Isabela, and Young, Lauren. 2016. “Buying, Expropriating, and Stealing Votes.” Annual Review of Political Science 19(1): 267–88.Google Scholar
Mari, Gloria. 2019. “Confessions of a Jubilee Supporter.” The Elephant. April 24. www.theelephant.info/reflections/2019/05/24/confessions-of-a-jubilee-supporter/Google Scholar
Mitullah, Winnie V. 2015. “Negotiated Democracy.” In Kenya’s 2013 General Election, ed. Kjogu, Kimani and Wekesa, Peter Wafula. Nairobi: Twaweza Communications.Google Scholar
Mpagi, Charles. 2018. “Return of Queue Voting System in Uganda.” The East African. July 4. www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/return-of-queue-voting-system-in-uganda-1397500.Google Scholar
Murtazashvili, Jennifer. 2016. Informal Order and the State in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Musambi, Evelyne. 2017. “Electoral Commission Wins Rare Praise from Kenyans.” Nairobi News. August 8. https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/electoral-commission-wins-praise-kenyans.Google Scholar
Nathan, Noah L. 2019a. “Electoral Consequences of Colonial Invention.” World Politics 71(3): 417–56.Google Scholar
Nathan, Noah L. 2019b. Electoral Politics and Africa’s Urban Transition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ndiso, John. 2017. “Some Kenyans, Keen to Vote, Rent Babies to Jump Long Queues.” Reuters. August 8. www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-election-babies-idUSKBN1AO1J1.Google Scholar
Nichter, Simeon. 2008. “Vote Buying or Turnout Buying?” American Political Science Review 102(1): 19–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichter, Simeon 2018. Votes for Survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nugent, Paul. 2006. “Banknotes and Symbolic Capital” In Votes, Money and Violence, ed. Mehler, A. Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.Google Scholar
Odote, Collins. 2020. “The 2013 Elections and the Peace Narrative (2013–2015).” In Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics, ed. Cheeseman, Nic, Kanyinga, Karuti, and Lynch, Gabrielle. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 96–108.Google Scholar
Oloo, Adams. 2020. “The Weaknesses of Political Parties.” In Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics, ed. Cheeseman, Nic, Kanyinga, Karuti, and Lynch, Gabrielle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Osborn, Michelle. 2020. “Chiefs, Elders, and Traditional Authority.” In Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics, ed. Cheeseman, Nic, Kanyinga, Karuti, and Lynch, Gabrielle. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 297–309.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor. 1990 Governing the Commons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paller, Jeffrey W. 2019. Democracy in Ghana. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Parliament of Uganda. 2005. Parliamentary Elections Act. https://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/africa/UG/uganda-parliamentary-elections-act–2005.Google Scholar
Partlow, Joshua. 2017. A Kingdom of Their Own. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Platteau, Jean-Philippe. 1991. “Traditional Systems of Social Security and Hunger Insurance: Past Achievements and Modern Challenges.” In Social Security in Developing Countries, ed. Ahmad, Ehtisham, Dreze, Jean, Hills, John, and Sen, Amartya K.. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 112–70.Google Scholar
Popkin, Samuel, Gorman, John, Phillips, , and Smith, Jeffrey. 1976. “Comment: What Have You Done for Me Lately?” American Political Science Review 70(30): 779–805.Google Scholar
Repucci, Sarah, and Slipowitz, Amy. 2021. Freedom in the World 2021. Washington, DC: Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2021/democracy-under-siege.Google Scholar
Riker, William H., and Ordeshook, Peter C.. 1968. “A Theory of the Calculus of Voting.” American Political Science Review 62(1): 25–42.Google Scholar
Robinson, Amanda L. 2014. “National versus Ethnic Identification in Africa.” World Politics 66(4): 709–46.Google Scholar
Rosenzweig, Leah R. 2019. “Social Voting in Semi-Authoritarian Systems.” Working paper.Google Scholar
Schaffer, Frederic. 2003. Democracy in Translation. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Stasavage, David. 2005. “The Role of Democracy in Uganda’s Move to Universal Primary Education.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 43(1): 53–73.Google Scholar
Scott, James. 1977. The Moral Economy of the Peasant. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Stokes, Susan, Dunning, Thad, Nazareno, Marcelo, and Brusco, Valeria. 2013. Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tapscott, Rebecca. 2016. “Where the Wild Things Are Not.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10(4): 693–712.Google Scholar
Tripp, Aili. 2010. Museveni’s Uganda. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2021. “Uganda: Elections Marred by Violence.” Human Rights Watch. June 27. www.hrw.org/news/2021/01/21/uganda-elections-marred-violence.Google Scholar
ULII. 2005. Presidential Elections Act of 2005. Part VI. https://ulii.org/akn/ug/act/2005/16/eng%402015-10–01.Google Scholar
Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation Commission of Kenya. 2008. Commissions of Inquiry – CIPEV Report (Waki Report). Seattle: Seattle University School of Law Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/tjrc-gov/5.Google Scholar
Uganda Electoral Commission. Voter Education Messages on the Voting Process. Kampala: Uganda Electoral Commission. www.ec.or.ug/pub/VE_messages.pdf.Google Scholar
VOA News. 2009. “Ghana Voters Combine Christmas With Political Gift-Giving.” VOA News. October 27. https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2008-12-15-voa1-66737132/561740.html.Google Scholar
Wamai, Njoki. 2020. “International Relations and the International Criminal Court.” In Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics, ed. Cheeseman, Nic, Kanyinga, Karuti, and Lynch, Gabrielle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wilder, Andrew. 2005. A House Divided? Analysing the 2005 Afghan Elections. Kabul: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit. www.refworld.org/pdfid/47c3f3c01b.pdf.Google Scholar
Willis, Justin, Lynch, Gabrielle, and Cheeseman, Nic. 2017. “The Voting Machine: The Material Culture of Polling Stations in Ghana, Kenya, and Uganda.” Politique Africaine 144(4): 27–50.Google Scholar
Young, Daniel J. 2009. “Is Clientelism at Work in African Elections?” Afrobarometer Working Paper No. 106. www.files.ethz.ch/isn/98869/AfropaperNo106.pdf.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

The Social Origins of Electoral Participation in Emerging Democracies
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

The Social Origins of Electoral Participation in Emerging Democracies
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

The Social Origins of Electoral Participation in Emerging Democracies
Available formats
×