Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T18:39:52.619Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Professional Occupations and Organizations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 December 2019

Daniel Muzio
Affiliation:
University of York
Sundeep Aulakh
Affiliation:
University of Leeds

Summary

This Element engages with fundamental questions concerning the future trajectory of professions as a distinct occupational category and of the formal organizations, which represent, employ or host professionals. It begins with a literature review that identifies a functionalist, power and institutionalist lens for the study of professional occupations and organizations. It then reviews a series of challenges which face the contemporary professions. Finally, the Element explores contemporary developments in the worlds of professions applying three units of analysis: macro (professional occupations and their associations), meso (professional organizations) and micro (professional workers).
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781108804318
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 16 January 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbott, A. (1988) The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Abel, R. L. (1988) The Legal Profession in England and Wales. New York: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Acker, A. (2006) Inequality Regimes: Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations. Gender and Society 2(4): 441–64.Google Scholar
Ackroyd, S. (1996) Organization contra organizations: professions and organizational change in the United Kingdom. Organization Studies 17(4): 599621.Google Scholar
Ackroyd, S. (2016) Sociological and organizational theories of professions and professionalism. In Dent, M., Bourgeault, I., Denis, J-L. and Kuhlmann, E. (eds.), The Routledge Companion to the Professions and Professionalism. London: Taylor and Francis, pp. 1530.Google Scholar
Ackroyd, S., and Muzio, D. (2007) The reconstructed professional firm: explaining change in English legal practices. Organization Studies 28(5): 729–47.Google Scholar
Ackroyd, S., Kirkpatrick, I., and Walker, R. M. (2007) Public management reform in the UK and its consequences for professional organization: a comparative analysis. Public Administration 85(1): 926.Google Scholar
Adams, T. L. (2017) Self-regulating professions: past, present, future. Journal of Professions and Organization 4(1): 7087.Google Scholar
Adler, P. S., and Kwon, S. W. (2013) The mutation of professionalism as a contested diffusion process: clinical guidelines as carriers of institutional change in medicine. Journal of Management Studies 50(5): 930–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adler, P., Kwon, S., and Hecksher, C. (2008) Professional work: the emergence of collaborative community. Organization Science 19(2): 359–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
AICPA (2017) Trends in the Supply of Accounting Graduates and the Demand for Public Accounting Recruits. Durham, NC: Association of International Certified Professional Accountants. http://bit.ly/2PF9grQ.Google Scholar
Albert, K. W. (2017) Research Note: Trends in the Demographics of College-Educated Professional Association Members in the United States, 1993–2015. Unpublished, on file with authors.Google Scholar
Albert, K. W. (2015) Professional associations and certification: A divergence of professional and cccupational interests. Paper presented to Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics, London, 2–4 July. http://bit.ly/2ALsK6o.Google Scholar
Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H. (2002) Identity regulation as organizational control: producing the appropriate individual. Journal of Management Studies 39(5): 619–44.Google Scholar
American Bar Association (2017) American Bar Association National Lawyer Population Survey: Historical Trends in Total National Lawyer Population 1878–2017. http://bit.ly/2qqRPAhGoogle Scholar
Anderson-Gough, F., Grey, C., and Robson, K. (2000) In the name of the client: the service ethic in two professional services firms. Human Relations 53(9): 1151–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson-Gough, F., Grey, C., and Robson, K. (2005). Helping them to forget: the organizational embedding of gender relations in public audit firms. Accounting, Organizations and Society 30(5): 469–90.Google Scholar
Anteby, M. (2010) Markets, morals, and practices of trade: jurisdictional disputes in the U.S. commerce in cadavers. Administrative Science Quarterly 55: 606–38.Google Scholar
Anteby, M., Chan, C. K., and DiBenigno, J. (2016) Three lenses on occupations and professions in organizations: becoming, doing, and relating. Academy of Management Annals 10(1): 183244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, P. (2000) Changing management control strategies – the role of competition between accountancy and other organizational professions. In Edwards, J. R. (ed.), History of Accounting: Critical Perspectives in Business and Management (Vol. IV). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Arnold, J. (2005) Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace, 4th ed. London: Prentice Hall Financial Time.Google Scholar
Arronowitz, S., and DiFazio, W. (1995) The Jobless Future, 2nd ed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Ashley, L., and Empson, L. (2013) Differentiation and discrimination: understanding social class and social exclusion in leading law firms. Human Relations 66(2): 219–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Australian Trade Practices Commission (TPC) (1993) National Competition Policy Report, Hilmer Report. http://bit.ly/2nnSd4b.Google Scholar
Ballakrishnen, S. (2016) India (International) Inc.: global work and the (re-) organization of professionalism in emerging economies. In Dent, M., Bourgeault, I., Denis, J-L. and Kuhlmann, E. (eds.), The Routledge Companion to the Professions and Professionalism. London: Routledge, pp. 265–79.Google Scholar
Barley, S., and Tolbert, P. S. (1991) An introduction: at the intersection of organizations and occupations. In Tolbert, P. S. and Barley, S. (eds.), Research in the Sociology of Organizations (Vol. 8). Cheltenham: Emerald Publishing, 113.Google Scholar
Barley, S. R., and Kunda, G. (2004) Gurus, Hired Guns, and Warm Bodies: Itinerant Experts in a Knowledge Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Barney, J. B. (1991) Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management 17(1): 99120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, M., Cooper, D. J., and Jamal, K. (2005) Globalization and the coordinating of work in multinational audits. Accounting, Organizations and Society 30(1): 124.Google Scholar
Bartley, T. (2011) Certification as a mode of social regulation. In Levi-Faur, D. (ed.), Handbook on the Politics of Regulation. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 441–52. Previously Jerusalem Papers in Regulation & Governance Working Paper No. 8.Google Scholar
Bechky, B. A. (2003) Sharing meaning across occupational communities: the transformation of understanding on a production floor. Organization Science 14(3): 312–30.Google Scholar
Bechky, B. A. (2011) Making organizational theory work: institutions, occupations, and negotiated orders. Organization Science 22(5): 1157–67.Google Scholar
Becker, H. (1970) Sociological Work: Method and Substance. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Books.Google Scholar
Becker, H. F., Geer, B., Hughes, E. C., and Strauss, A. L. (1961) Boys in White. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bell, D. (1973) The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bevan, G., and Hood, C. (2006) What’s measured is what matters: targets and gaming in the English public health care system. Public Administration 84(3): 517–38.Google Scholar
Bidwell, M., and Briscoe, F. (2010) The dynamics of interorganizational careers. Organization Science 21(5): 1034–53.Google Scholar
Birkett, W. P., and Evans, E. (2005) Theorizing professionalization: a model for organizing and understanding histories of the professionalizing activities of occupational associations of accountants. Accounting History 10(1): 99127.Google Scholar
Blau, P., and Scott, W. R. (1962) Formal Organizations: A Comparative Approach. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Bol, T. (2014) Economic returns to occupational closure in the German skilled trades. Social Science Research 46: 922.Google Scholar
Bolton, S., and Muzio, D. (2008) The paradoxical processes of feminization in the professions: the case of established, aspiring and semi-professions. Work, Employment and Society 22(2): 281–99.Google Scholar
Bonnin, D., and Ruggunan, S. (2016) Professions and professionalism in emerging economies: the case of South Africa. In Dent, M., Bourgeault, I., Denis, J-L. and Kuhlmann, E. (eds.), The Routledge Companion to the Professions and Professionalism. London: Routledge, pp. 251–64.Google Scholar
Boussebaa, M. (2009) Struggling to organize across national borders: the case of global resource management in professional service firms. Human Relations 62(6): 829–50.Google Scholar
Boussebaa, M., and Morgan, G. (2015) The internationalization of professional service firms: drivers, forms and outcomes. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschack, J. and Hinings, B. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Services Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 7191.Google Scholar
Braverman, H. (1974) Labour and Monopoly Capital. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar
Brint, S. G. (1994) In an Age of Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals in Politics and Public Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
British Office of Fair Trading (2001) Competition in Professions. http://bit.ly/2BEVuPq.Google Scholar
Brivot, M. (2011) Controls of knowledge production, sharing and use in bureaucratized professional service firms. Organization Studies 32(4): 489508.Google Scholar
Broadbent, J., Dietrich, M., and Roberts, J. (1997) The End of the Professions? The Restructuring of Professional Work. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Brock, D. M. (2006) The changing professional organization: A review of competing archetypes. International Journal of Management Reviews 8(3), 157–74.Google Scholar
Brock, D. M., Powell, M. J., and Hinings, C. R. (1999) The restructured professional organization: corporates, cobwebs and cowboys. In Powell, M. J., Brock, D. M. and Hinings, C. R. (eds), Restructuring the Professional Organization: Accounting Health Care and Law. London: Routledge, pp. 215–29.Google Scholar
Broschak, J. (2015) Client relationships in professional service firms. In Empson, L. et al. (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Professional Service Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 304–26.Google Scholar
Brynjolfsson, E., and McAfee, A. (2014) The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies. London: W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Bureau of Labor Statistics (1965) Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1966–67. US Department of Labor. http://bit.ly/2zNwLIe.Google Scholar
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2016, 2015, 2010, 2008, 2000) Occupational Employment Statistics. US Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.Google Scholar
Burrage, M. (1997) Mrs Thatcher against the ‘little republics’: ideology, precedents and reactions. In Halliday, T. C. and Karpik, L. (eds), Lawyers and the Rise of Western Political Liberalism. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 125–65.Google Scholar
Burrage, M., and Torstendahl, R. (eds) (1990) Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Bush, T., Sunder, S., and Fearnley, S. (2007) Auditor Liability Reforms in the UK and the US: A Comparative Review. Available at SSRN: http://bit.ly/2ibC1gG.Google Scholar
Campbell, I., and Charlesworth, S. (2012) Salaried lawyers and billable hours: a new perspective from the sociology of work. International Journal of the Legal Profession 19(1): 89122.Google Scholar
Campbell, R. W. (2016) The Digital Future of the Oldest Information Profession. Available at SSRN: http://bit.ly/2nphwCO.Google Scholar
Canton, E., Ciriaci, D., and Solera, I. (2014) The Economic Impact of Professional Services Liberalisation. European Commission, European Economy. http://bit.ly/2AqHSap.Google Scholar
Carr-Saunders, A. M., and Wilson, P. A. (1933) The Professions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chafetz, M. E. (1994) The Tyranny of Experts: Blowing the Whistle on the Cult of Expertise. New York: Derrydale Press.Google Scholar
Chan, C. K., and Anteby, M. (2015) Task segregation as a mechanism for within-job inequality: Women and men of the Transportation Security Administration. Administrative Science Quarterly 61(2), 184216.Google Scholar
Charles, M., and Grusky, D. B. (2004) Occupational Ghettos: The Worldwide Segregation of Women and Men. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Chreim, S., Williams, B., and Hinings, C. R. 2007. Interlevel influences on the reconstruction of professional role identity. Academy of Management Journal 50: 1515–39.Google Scholar
Christensen, C. M., Wang, D., and Von Bever, D. (2013) Consulting on the Cusp of Disruption. Harvard Business Review 91(October): 106–14.Google Scholar
Coffee, J. C. (2006) Gatekeepers: The Professions and Corporate Governance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, R. (1990). Changing conceptions in the sociology of the professions. In Burrage, M. and Torstendahl, R. (eds), Knowledge, State and Strategy: The Formation of Professions in Europe and North America. London: Sage, pp. 1123.Google Scholar
Cooper, D., Hinings, C. R., Greenwood, R., and Brown, J. L. (1996) Sedimentation and transformation in organizational change: the case of Canadian law firms. Organization Studies 17(4): 623–47.Google Scholar
Council of Bars and Law Societies of Europe (2015, 2010, 2008, 1999) Lawyer Statistics. http://bit.ly/2qcV7HA.Google Scholar
Cousins, C. (1987) Controlling Social Welfare. Brighton: Wheatsheaf.Google Scholar
Covaleski, M. A., Dirsmith, M. W., Heian, J. B., and Samuel, S. (1998) The calculated and the avowed: techniques of discipline and struggle over identity in big six public accounting firms. Administrative Science Quarterly 43(2): 293327.Google Scholar
Crompton, R. (1990) Professions in the current context. Work Employment and Society – special edition: a decade of change? 4(5): 147–66.Google Scholar
Currie, G., Lockett, A., Finn, R., Martin, G. P., and Waring, J. (2012) Institutional work to maintain professional power: recreating the model of medical professionalism. Organization Studies 33(7), 937–62.Google Scholar
Currie, R., Richmond, J., Faulconbridge, J., Gabbioneta, C., and Muzio, D. (2019) Professional misconduct in healthcare: setting out a research agenda for work sociology. Work, Employment and Society 33(1): 149–61.Google Scholar
Dacin, P. A., Dacin, T., and Matear, M. (2010) Social entrepreneurship: why we don’t need a new theory and how we move forward from here. Academy of Management Perspectives 24(3): 3757.Google Scholar
David, R. J., Sine, W. D., and Haveman, H. A. (2013) Seizing opportunity in emerging fields: how institutional entrepreneurs legitimated the professional form of management consulting. Organization Science 24(2): 356–77.Google Scholar
Derber, C. (ed.) (1982) Professionals as Workers: Mental Labour in Advanced Capitalism. Boston, MA: G. K. Hall.Google Scholar
Derbyshire, J. (15 November 2018) Big Four circle the legal profession. The Financial Times.Google Scholar
DeStefano, M. (2018) Legal Upheaval: A Guide to Creativity, Collaboration, and Innovation in Law. American Bar Association. Kindle Edition.Google Scholar
Dezalay, Y., and Garth, B. G. (2012) Corporate law firms, NGOs, and issues of legitimacy for a global legal order. Fordham Law Review 80(6): 2309–45.Google Scholar
Dezalay, Y., and Garth, B. (1996) Dealing in Virtue: International Commercial Arbitration and the Construction of a Trans-National Legal Order. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
DiMaggio, P. J. (1991) Constructing an organizational field as a professional project: US art museums, 1920–1940. In Powell, W. W. and DiMaggio, P. J. (eds), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, pp. 267–92.Google Scholar
DiMaggio, P. J., and Powell, W. (1991) Introduction. In DiMaggio, P. J. and Powell, W. (eds.), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
DiMaggio, P. J., and Powell, W. W. (1983) The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review 48(2): 147–60.Google Scholar
Dinovitzer, R., Gunz, H. P., and Gunz, S. (2014) Unpacking client capture: evidence from corporate law firms. Journal of Professions and Organization 1(2): 99117.Google Scholar
Dixon-Woods, M., Yeung, K., and Bosk, C. (2011) Why is U.K. medicine no longer a self-regulating profession? The role of scandals involving ‘bad apple’ doctors. Social Science & Med. 73(10): 1452–9.Google Scholar
Djelic, M.-L., and Sahlin-Andersson, K. (eds) (2006) Transnational Governance: Institutional Dynamics of Regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Durkheim, E. (1984) The Division of Labour in Society. New York: Macmillan Education.Google Scholar
Durkheim, E. (1992) Professional Ethics and Civic Morals, 2nd ed. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Empson, L. (ed.) (2007) Managing the Modern Law Firm: New Challenges, New Perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Empson, L. (2017) Leading Professionals: Power, Politics, and Prima Donnas. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Empson, L., and Langley, A. (2015) Leadership and professionals: multiple manifestations of influence in professional service firms. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschak, J. and Hinings, B. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Service Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 163–88.Google Scholar
Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschak, J., and Hinings, B. (2015) Researching professional service firms: an introduction and overview. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschack, J. and Hinings, B. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Services Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 124.Google Scholar
Etzioni, A. (1969) The Semi-Professions and Their Organization; Teachers, Nurses, Social Workers. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Eyal, G. (2013) For a sociology of expertise: the social origins of the autism epidemic. American Journal of Sociology 118(4): 863907.Google Scholar
Evetts, J. (2002) New directions in state and international professional occupations: discretionary decision-making and acquired regulation. Work Employment and Society 16(2): 341–52.Google Scholar
Evetts, J. (2011) A new professionalism? Challenges and opportunities. Current Sociology 59(4): 406‒22.Google Scholar
Evetts, J. (2014) The concept of professionalism: professional work, professional practice and learning. In Billett, S., Harteis, C. and Gruber, H. (eds), International Handbook of Research in Professional and Practice-Based Learning. Ipswich: Springer, pp. 2956.Google Scholar
Fama, E. F., and Jensen, M. C. (1983) Separation of ownership and control. The Journal of Law & Economics 26(2), 301–25.Google Scholar
Farndale, E., and Brewster, C. (2005) In search of legitimacy: personnel management associations worldwide. Human Resource Management Journal 15(3), 3348.Google Scholar
Faulconbridge, J., and Muzio, D. (2008) Organizational professionalism in globalizing law firms. Work, Employment & Society 22(1): 725.Google Scholar
Faulconbridge, J., and Muzio, D. (2009) The financialization of large law firms: situated discourses and practices of reorganization. Journal of Economic Geography 9(5): 641–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faulconbridge, J., and Muzio, D. (2012) Learning to be a lawyer in transnational law firms: communities of practice, institutions and identity regulation. Global Networks 12(1): 4870.Google Scholar
Faulconbridge, J., and Muzio, D. (2015) Transnational corporations shaping institutional change: the case of English law firms in Germany. The Journal of Economic Geography 15(6): 1195–226.Google Scholar
Faulconbridge, J. and Muzio, D. (2016) Global professional service firms and the challenge of institutional complexity: ‘field relocation’ as a response strategy. Journal of Management Studies 53(1): 89124.Google Scholar
Faulconbridge, J. and Muzio, D. (2019) Field partitioning: the emergence, development and consolidation of subfields. Organizational Studies. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Fayard, A. L., Stigliani, I., & Bechky, B. A. (2017) How nascent occupations construct a mandate: the case of service designers’ ethos. Administrative Science Quarterly 62(2): 270303.Google Scholar
Ferlie, E., Fitzgerald, L., McGivern, G., Dopson, S., and Bennett, C. P. (2011) Public policy networks and ‘wicked problems’: a nascent solution? Public Administration 89(2): 307–24.Google Scholar
Financial & Legal Skills Partnership (2018) Scottish Higher Level Apprenticeships: Level 4 (SCQF Level 8) A Technical Apprenticeship in Professional Services. https://bit.ly/2YqkJRD.Google Scholar
Fincham, R., and Clark, T. (2002) Management consultancy: issues, perspectives, and agendas. International Studies of Management & Organization 32(4): 318.Google Scholar
Fligstein, N. (1990) The Transformation of Corporate Control. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Flood, J. (2012) Will there be fallout from Clementi? The repercussions for the legal profession after the Legal Services Act 2007. Michigan State Law Review: 537–64.Google Scholar
Foucault, M. (1977) Discipline and Punish. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Fournier, V. (1999) The appeal to ‘professionalism’ as a disciplinary mechanism. Sociological Review 47(2), 280307.Google Scholar
Freidson, E. (1988) Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co.Google Scholar
Freidson, E. (1994) Professionalism Reborn: Theory, Prophecy and Policy. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Freidson, E. (2001) Professionalism: The Third Logic. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, S., Laurison, D., and Andrew, M. (2015) Breaking the class ceiling? Social mobility into Britain’s elite occupations. The Sociological Review 63(2): 259–89.Google Scholar
Gabbioneta, C., Greenwood, R., Mazzola, P., and Minoja, M. (2013) The influence of the institutional context on corporate illegality. Accounting, Organizations and Society 38(6–7): 484504.Google Scholar
Gabbioneta, C., Prakash, R., and Greenwood, R. (2014) Sustained corporate corruption and processes of institutional ascription within professional networks. Journal of Professions and Organization 1(1): 1632.Google Scholar
Gabbioneta, C., Faulconbridge, J., Currie, G., Dinovitzer, R., and Muzio, D. (2018) Inserting professionals and professional organizations in studies of wrongdoing: the nature, antecedents and consequences of professional misconduct. Human Relations. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726718809400.Google Scholar
Galambos, l. (1965) Competition and Cooperation: The Emergence of a National Trade Association. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Galanter, M., and Palay, T. (1991) Tournament of Lawyers: The Transformation of the Big Law Firm. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gane, M., and Johnson, T. (1993) Foucault’s New Domain. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Gardner, H. K., and Eccles, R. G. (2011) Eden Mccallum: A Network-Based Consulting Firm (A) HBS Case No. 410–056. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1963909.Google Scholar
Garicano, L., and Hubbard, T. N. (2007) The Return to Knowledge Hierarchies. US Census Bureau Center for Economic Studies Paper No. CES-WP-07–01. Available at SSRN: http://bit.ly/2qb74NJ.Google Scholar
Gill, M. J. (2015) Elite identity and status anxiety: an interpretative phenomenological analysis of management consultants. Organization 22(3): 306–25.Google Scholar
Goode, W. J. (1957) Community within a community: the professions. American Sociological Review 22(2), 194200.Google Scholar
Goodman, J. (2016) Robots in Law: How Artificial Intelligence Is Transforming Legal Services. London: Arc Group. Kindle Edition.Google Scholar
Goodrick, E., and Reay, T. (2010). Florence Nightingale endures: legitimizing a new professional role identity. Journal of Management Studies 47: 5584.Google Scholar
Gorman, E., and Sandefur, R. (2011) ‘Golden Age’, Quiescence, and Revival. Work and Occupations 38(3): 275302.Google Scholar
Gorman, E. H. (2005) Gender Stereotypes, Same-Gender Preferences, and Organizational Variation in the Hiring of Women: Evidence from Law Firms. American Sociological Review 70(4): 702–28.Google Scholar
Gorman, E. H. (2015) Getting ahead in professional organizations: individual qualities, socioeconomic background and organizational context. Journal of Professions and Organization 2(2): 122–47.Google Scholar
Gouldner, A. W. (1957) Cosmopolitans and locals: toward an analysis of latent social roles. Administrative Science Quarterly 2(3): 281306Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., and Empson, L. (2003) The professional partnership: relic or exemplary form of governance? Organization Studies 24(6): 909–33.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., and Hinings, B. (1988) Organizational Design Types, Tracks and the Dynamics of Strategic Change. Organization Studies 9(3): 293316.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., and Hinings, B. (1993) Understanding strategic change: the contribution of archetypes. Academy of Management Journal 36(5): 1052–81.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., and Hinings, C. R. (1996) Understanding radical organizational change: bringing together the old and new institutionalism. Academy of Management Review 21(4): 1022–54.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., and Suddaby, R. (2006) Institutional entrepreneurship in mature fields: the Big Five accounting firms. Academy of Management Journal 49(1): 2748.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., Hinings, C., and Brown, J. (1990) ‘P2-form’ strategic management: corporate practices in professional partnerships. Academy of Management Journal 33(4): 725–55.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., Hinings, C. R., and Brown, J. (2015) Sustainability and organizational change: an institutional perspective. In Henderson, R., Gulati, R., & Tushman, M. (eds), Leading Sustainable Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., Li, S. X., Prakash, R., & Deephouse, D. L. (2005) Reputation, diversification, and organizational explanations of performance in professional service firms. Organization Science 16(6): 661–73.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., Oliver, C., Sahlin, K., and Suddaby, R. (eds) (2008) The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., Suddaby, R., and Hinings, C. R. (2002) Theorizing change: the role of professional associations in the transformation of institutionalized fields. Academy of Management Journal 45(1): 5880.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R., Suddaby, R., and McDougald, M. (2006) Introduction. In Greenwood, R., Suddaby, R., and McDougald, M. (eds), Professional Service Firms. Oxford: JAI Press, 116.Google Scholar
Grey, C. (1994) Career as a project of the self and labour process discipline. Sociology 28(2): 479–97.Google Scholar
Grey, C. (2003) The real world of Enron’s auditors. Organization 10(3): 572–6.Google Scholar
Gulati, M., and Scott, R. E. (2012) The 3½ Minute Transaction: Boilerplate and the Limits of Contract Design. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gunz, H. P., and Gunz, S. P. (2006) Professional ethics in formal organizations. In Greenwood, R. and Suddaby, R. (eds), Professional Service Firms – Research in the Sociology of Organizations (Vol. 24). Cheltenham: Emerald Publishing, pp. 257–81.Google Scholar
Hall, R. H. (1968) Professionalization and bureaucratization, American Sociological Review. 33(1): 92104.Google Scholar
Halliday, T. C. (1987) Beyond Monopoly: Lawyers, State Crises, and Professional Empowerment. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hanlon, G. (1998) Professionalism as enterprise: service class politics and the redefinition of professionalism. Sociology 32(1): 4363.Google Scholar
Hansen, M. T., Nohria, N., and Tierney, T. (1999) What’s your strategy for managing knowledge? Harvard Business Review 77(2): 106–16.Google Scholar
Hardy, C., and McGuire, S. (2008) Institutional entrepreneurship. In Greenwood, R., Oliver, C., Suddaby, R., and Sahlin, K. (eds), The Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism. London: Sage Publications, pp. 198217.Google Scholar
Harvey, D. (2010) The Enigma of Capital: and the Crises of Capitalism. London: Profile Books.Google Scholar
Harz, M. (2017) Cancer, computers and complexity: decision making for the patient. European Review 25(1): 96106.Google Scholar
Haug, M. (1972) Deprofessionalization: An alternative hypothesis for the future. Sociological Review Monographs 20(1): 195211.Google Scholar
Hickson, D. J., and Thomas, M. W. (1969) Professionalization in Britain: a preliminary measure. Sociology 3(1): 3753.Google Scholar
Hinings, C. R. (2005). The changing nature of professional organizations. In Ackroyd, S., Batt, R., Thompson, P., and Tolbert, P. S. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Work and Organization. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 404–24.Google Scholar
Hodgson, D. E., Paton, S., and Muzio, D. (2015) Something old, something new? Competing logics and the hybrid nature of new corporate professions. British Journal of Management 26(4): 745–59.Google Scholar
Hoffman, A. (1999) Institutional evolution and change: environmentalism and the US chemical industry. Academy of Management Journal 42(4): 351–71.Google Scholar
Hudson, J. R. (2013) Special Interest Society. New York: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Hughes, E. C. (1963) Profession. Daedalus 92(4): 5568.Google Scholar
Huising, R. (2015) To hive or to hold? Producing professional authority through scut work. Administrative Science Quarterly 60(2): 263–99.Google Scholar
Hwang, H., and Powell, W. W. (2009) The rationalisation of charity: the influences of professionalism in the non-profit sector. Administrative Science Quarterly 54(2): 268–98.Google Scholar
Ibarra, H. (1999) Provisional selves: experimenting with image and identity in professional adaptation. Administrative Science Quarterly 44: 764–91.Google Scholar
Illich, I. (1976) Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Illich, I. (1977) Disabling Professions. New York: Marion Boyars.Google Scholar
Insights West (15 June 2017) Nurses, Doctors and Scientists Are Canada’s Most Respected Professionals. http://bit.ly/2Fys3Uf.Google Scholar
Ipsos MORI (2017) Trust in Professions: Long-Term Trends. http://bit.ly/2G97xan.Google Scholar
Iyer, V. M., Bamber, E. M., and Barefield, R. M. (2000) CPA firms’ marketing strategies: the important role of alumni relations programs. Journal of Professional Services Marketing 21(1): 17.Google Scholar
Jenkins, K. (2017) Exploring the UK Freelance Workforce in 2016. London: IPSE.Google Scholar
Ježek, P., and Jeppe, K. (2017) Report on the inquiry into money laundering, tax avoidance and tax evasion. European Parliament. http://bit.ly/2HyndU0.Google Scholar
Johnson, T. J. (1972) Professions and Power. London: MacmillanGoogle Scholar
Johnson, T. L. (1977) Professions in the class structure. In Scase, R. (ed.), Class, Cleavage and Control. London: Allen and Unwin, pp. 93–110.Google Scholar
Johnson, T. L. (1982) The state and the professions: peculiarities of the British. In Giddens, A. and Mackenzie, G. (eds), Social Class and the Division of Labour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 186–208.Google Scholar
Kaplan, J. (2015) Humans Need Not Apply: A Guide to Wealth and Work in the Age of Artificial Intelligence: New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Kay, F. M., Alarie, S., and Adjei, J. (2013) Leaving private practice: how organizational context, time pressures, and structural inflexibilities shape departures from private law practice. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 20(2), 1223–60.Google Scholar
Kershaw, D., and Moorhead, R. (2013) Consequential responsibility for client wrongs: Lehman Brothers and the regulation of the legal profession. The Modern Law Review 76(1): 2661.Google Scholar
Keystone Law (11 May 2015) Law firm’s installation at Liverpool Street Station tells commuters legal careers don’t have to be this way. http://bit.ly/2CpnmKt.Google Scholar
Khosla, V. (4 December 2012) Technology will replace 80% of what doctors do. Fortune. http://for.tn/2rL4XAp.Google Scholar
Kipping, M. (2002). Trapped in their wave: the evolution of management consultancies. In Clark, T. and Fincham, R. (eds), Critical Consulting: New Perspectives on the Management Advice Industry. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 2849.Google Scholar
Kipping, M. (2011) Hollow from the start? Image professionalism in management consulting. Current Sociology 59(4): 530–50.Google Scholar
Kipping, M., and Kirkpatrick, I. (2013) Alternative pathways of change in professional services firms: the case of management consulting. Journal of Management Studies 50(5): 777807.Google Scholar
Kipping, M., Kirkpatrick, I., and Muzio, D. (2006) Overly controlled or out of control? Management consultants and the new corporate professionalism. In Craig, J. (ed.), Production Values: Futures for Professionalism. London: Demos, pp. 153–65.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, I., and Ackroyd, S. (2003) Archetype theory and the changing professional organization: a critique and alternative. Organization 10(4): 739–58.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, I., and Hoque, K. (2006) A retreat from permanent employment? Accounting for the rise of professional agency work in UK public services. Work, Employment and Society 20(4): 649–66.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, I., Muzio, D., and Aulakh, S. (2017) Practice-to-Profession: Exploration of the Current Status, Perceptions and Future Pathways. Chicago, IL: ASAE Foundation.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, I., Muzio, D., Kipping, M., and Hinnings, C. R. (2019) Meta organisations and the emergence of corporate professionalism: the case of UK management consulting’. Paper presented at the American Academy of Management conference, Boston, August.Google Scholar
Kleiner, M. M., and Krueger, A. B. (2013) Analyzing the extent and influence of occupational licensing on the labor market. Journal of Labor Economics 31(2), S173S202.Google Scholar
Kleiner, M. M., and Vorotnikov, E. (2017) Analyzing occupational licensing among the states. Journal of Regulatory Economics 52(2): 132–58.Google Scholar
Kleiner, M. M. (2013) Stages of Occupational Regulation. Kalamazoo, MI: Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.Google Scholar
Kmec, J., and Gorman, E. H. (2009) Gender and discretionary work effort: evidence from the United States and Britain. Work and Occupations 37(1): 336.Google Scholar
Kornberger, M., Carter, C., and Ross-Smith, A. (2010) Changing gender domination in a Big Four accounting firm: Flexibility, performance and client service in practice. Accounting, Organizations and Society 35(8): 775–91.Google Scholar
Kornberger, M., Justesen, L., and Mouritsen, J. (2011) ‘When you make manager, we put a big mountain in front of you’: an ethnography of managers in a Big 4 accounting firm. Accounting, Organizations and Society 36(8): 514–33.Google Scholar
Koumenta, M., and Pagliero, M. (2017) Measuring Prevalence and Labour Market Impacts of Occupational Regulation in the EU. European Commission. http://bit.ly/2qeTj0C.Google Scholar
Krause, E. A. (1996) The Death of the Guilds: Professions, States and the Advance of Capitalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Krill, P. R., Johnson, R., and Albert, L. (2016) The prevalence of substance use and other mental health concerns among American attorneys. Journal of Addiction Medicine 10(1): 4652.Google Scholar
Kuhlmann, E., Burau, V., Correia, T., Lewandowski, R., Lionis, C., Noordegraff, M., and Repullo, J. (2013) A manager in the minds of doctors: a comparison of new modes of control in European hospitals. BMC Health Services Research 13(1): 246–57.Google Scholar
Kuruvilla, S., and Noronha, E. (2015) From pyramids to diamonds: legal process offshoring, employment systems, and labor markets for lawyers in the United States and India. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 69(2): 124.Google Scholar
Kyratsis, Y., Atun, R., Phillips, N., Tracey, P., and George, G. (2017) Health systems in transition: professional identity work in the context of shifting institutional logics. Academy of Management Journal 60(2): 610–41.Google Scholar
Larson, M. S. (1977) The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Law, M. T. and Kim, S. (2005) Specialisation and regulation: the rise of professionals and the emergence of occupational licensing regulation. The Journal of Economic History 65(3): 723–56.Google Scholar
Lawrence, T. B. and Suddaby, R. (2006) Institutions and institutional work. In Clegg, S. R., Hardy, C., Lawrence, T. B. and Nord, W. R. (eds), Handbook of Organizations Studies, 2nd ed. London: Sage, pp. 215–54.Google Scholar
Leblebici, H., and Sherer, P. D. (2015) Governance in professional service firms: from structural and cultural to legal normative views. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschak, J. and Hinings, B. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Service Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 189212.Google Scholar
Leicht, K. T. (2016) Market fundamentalism, cultural fragmentation, post-modern scepticism, and the future or professional work. Journal of Professions and Organization 3(1): 103–17.Google Scholar
Leicht, K. T., and Fennell, M. (2001) Professional Work: A Sociological Approach. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Leicht, K. T., and Fennell, M. L. (1997) The changing organizational context of professional work. Annual Review of Sociology 23: 215–31.Google Scholar
Leicht, K. T., and Lyman, E. C. (2006) Markets, institutions, and the crisis of professional practice. In Greenwood, R. and Suddaby, R. (eds), Research in the Sociology of Organizations (Vol. 4). Cheltenham: Emerald Publishing, pp. 1744.Google Scholar
Lepisto, D. A., Crosina, E., and Pratt, M. G. (2015) Identity work within and beyond the professions: toward a theoretical integration and extension. In Desilva, A. and Aparicio, M. (eds), International Handbook of Professional Identities. Rosemead, CA: Scientific and Academic Publishing, pp. 1137.Google Scholar
Lester, S. (2009) Routes to qualified status: practices and trends among UK professional bodies. Studies in Higher Education 34(2): 223–36.Google Scholar
Lester, S. (2016) The development of self-regulation in four UK professional communities. Professions and Professionalism 6(1): 1441. https://journals.hioa.no/index.php/pp/article/view/1441Google Scholar
Lieberman, J. (1970) The Tyranny of the Experts: New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Lounsbury, M. (2001) Institutional sources of practice variation: staffing college and university recycling programs. Administrative Science Quarterly 46(1): 2956.Google Scholar
Lounsbury, M. (2002) Institutional transformation and status mobility: the professionalization of the field of finance. Academy of Management Journal 45(1): 255–66.Google Scholar
Lounsbury, M. (2007) A tale of two cities: competing logics and practice variation in the professionalization of mutual funds. Academy of Management Journal 50(2): 289307.Google Scholar
Lounsbury, M., and Kaghan, B. (2001) Organizations, occupations and the structuration of work. In Vallas, S. P. (ed.),The Transformation of Work (Research in the Sociology of Work) (Vol. 10). Cheltenham: Emerald Group Publishing, pp. 2550.Google Scholar
Lupu, I., and Empson, L. (2015) Illusio and overwork: playing the game in the accounting field. Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 28(8): 1310–40.Google Scholar
Lyons, B. D., Mueller, L. M., Gruys, M. L. and Meyers, A. J. (2012) A re-examination of the web-based job demand for PHR and SPHR certifications in the United States. Human Resource Management 51(5): 769–88.Google Scholar
MacDonald, K. M. (1995) The Sociology of the Professions. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Maister, D. (2003) Managing the Professional Service Firm. New York: Simon Schuster.Google Scholar
Malhotra, N., and Hinings, C. R. (2010) An organizational model for understanding internationalization processes. Journal of International Business Studies 41(2): 330–49.Google Scholar
Malhotra, N., Morris, T., and Smets, M. (2010) New career models in UK professional service firms: from up-or-out to up-and-going-nowhere? The International Journal of Human Resource Management 21(9): 13961413.Google Scholar
Malhotra, N., Morris, T., and Hinings, C. B. (2006) Variation in organizational form among professional service organizations. In Greenwood, R. and Suddaby, R. (eds), Professional Service Firms: Research in the Sociology of Organizations (Vol. 24). Cheltenham: Emerald Group Publishing, pp. 171202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malhotra, N., Smets, M., and Morris, T. (2016) Career pathing and innovation in professional service firms. Academy of Management Perspectives 30(4): 369–83.Google Scholar
Malos, S. B., and Champion, M. A. (2000). Human resource strategy and career mobility in professional service firms: a test of an options-based model. Academy of Management Journal 43(4): 749–60.Google Scholar
Marshall, T. H. (1939) The recent history of professionalism in relation to social structure and social policy. The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 5(3): 325–40.Google Scholar
Martin, G. P., Kocman, D., Stephens, T., Peden, C. J., and Pearse, R. M. (2017) Pathways to professionalism? Quality improvement, care pathways, and the interplay of standardisation and clinical autonomy. Sociology of Health and Illness 39(8): 116.Google Scholar
Mawdsley, J. K., and Somaya, D. (2015) Strategy and strategic alignment in professional service firms. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschak, J. and Hinings, B. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Service Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 213–37.Google Scholar
Mawdsley, J. K. and Somaya, D. (2018) Demand‐side strategy, relational advantage, and partner‐driven corporate scope: The case for client‐led diversification. Strategic Management Journal 39(7): 1834–59.Google Scholar
Mazmanian, M., Orlikowski, W. J., and Yates, J. (2013) The autonomy paradox: the implications of mobile e-mail devices for knowledge professionals. Organization Science 27(5): 1337–57.Google Scholar
McCarthy, N. (4 January 2018) America’s most and least trusted professions. Forbes. http://bit.ly/2Hfd1zN.Google Scholar
McClelland, C. E. (1991) The German Experience of Professionalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McGinnis, J. O., and Pearce, R. G. (2014) The great disruption: how machine intelligence will transform the role of lawyers in the delivery of legal services. Fordham Law Review 82(6): 3041–66.Google Scholar
McKenna, C. D. (2006) The World’s Newest Profession: Management Consultancy in the Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Merton, R. K. (1982) Institutionalized altruism: the case of the professions. In Merton, R. K. (ed.), Social Research and the Practicing Professions. Cambridge, MA: ABT Books, pp. 109–34.Google Scholar
Meyer, J. W., and Rowan, B. (1977) Institutionalized organizations: formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology 82(2), 340–63.Google Scholar
Micelotta, E. R., and Washington, M. (2013) Institutions and maintenance: the repair work of Italian professions. Organization Studies 34(8): 1137–70.Google Scholar
Millerson, G. (1964) The Qualifying Associations: A Study in Professionalization. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Mintzberg, H. (1979) The Structuring of Organizations: A Synthesis of the Research. Irving, TX: Pearson.Google Scholar
Mitchell, A., and Sikka, P. (2011) The Pin-Stripe Mafia: How Accountancy Firms Destroy Societies. Basildon: Association for Accountancy and Business Affairs.Google Scholar
Morgan, G., and Quack, S. (2006) The Internationalisation of Professional Service Firms: Global Convergence, National Path-Dependency or Cross-Border Hybridisation? In Greenwood, R. and Suddaby, R. (eds), Professional Service Firms: Research in the Sociology of Organizations. Cheltenham: Emerald Publishing, pp. 403–31.Google Scholar
Morgan, R. (2017) Health professionals continue domination with Nurses most highly regarded again; followed by Doctors and Pharmacists. Roy Morgan Professions Survey. http://bit.ly/2HidVLY.Google Scholar
Morris, T. J., and Pinnington, A. H. (1998) Evaluating strategic fit in professional service firms. Human Resource Management Journal 8(4): 7687.Google Scholar
Muhr, S. L. (2011) Caught in the gendered machine: on the masculine and feminine in cyborg leadership. Gender, Work and Organization 18(3): 337–57.Google Scholar
Murphy, R. (1986) Weberian closure theory: a contribution to the ongoing assessment. British Journal of Sociology 37(1): 2141.Google Scholar
Muzio, D., and Ackroyd, S. (2005) On the consequences of defensive professionalism: the transformation of the legal labour process. Journal of Law and Society 32(4): 615–42.Google Scholar
Muzio, D., and Faulconbridge, J. (2013) The global professional service firm: ‘one firm’ models versus (Italian) distant institutionalized practices. Organization Studies 34(7): 897925.Google Scholar
Muzio, D., and Kirkpatrick, I. (2011) Introduction: professions and organizations ‒ a conceptual framework. Current Sociology 59(4): 389405.Google Scholar
Muzio, D., Brock, D. M., and Suddaby, R. (2013) Professions and institutional change: towards an institutionalist sociology of the professions. Journal of Management Studies 50(5): 699721.Google Scholar
Muzio, D., Faulconbridge, J., Gabbioneta, C., and Greenwood, R. (2016) Bad apples, bad barrels and bad cellars: a ‘boundaries’ perspective on professional misconduct. In Palmer, D., Greenwood, R. and Smith-Crowe, K. (eds), Organizational Wrongdoing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 141–75.Google Scholar
Nichols, T. (2017) The Death of Expertise. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Noonan, M. C., and Corcoran, M. E. (2004) The mommy track and partnership: temporary delay or dead end? The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 596(1): 130–50.Google Scholar
Noordegraaf, M. (2011) Risky business: how professionals and professionals fields (must) deal with organizational issues. Organization Studies 32(10): 1349–71.Google Scholar
O’Mahoney, J., and Sturdy, A. (2016) Power and the diffusion of management ideas: the case of McKinsey & Co. Management Learning 47(3): 247–65.Google Scholar
OECD (2007) Competitive Restrictions in Legal Professions. http://bit.ly/2jafjqk.Google Scholar
OECD Health Statistics (2017) http://bit.ly/2qp6g7W.Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics (2017a) UK business; activity, size and location: Statistical Bulletin. http://bit.ly/2GwJpPg.Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics (2017b) Input-output supply and use tables: summary tables. http://bit.ly/2GuXv3y.Google Scholar
Oppenheimer, M. (1972) The proletarianization of the professional. The Sociological Review 20(51): 213–27.Google Scholar
Oppenheimer, M. (1973) Proletarianization of the professional. In Halmos, P. (ed.), Professionalization and Social Change. Keele: Keele University Press, 213–27.Google Scholar
Park, S., Sine, W. D., and Tolbert, P. S. (2011). Professions, organizations, and institutions: tenure systems in colleges and universities. Work and Occupations 38(3): 340–71.Google Scholar
Parker, C. (2008) Peering over the ethical precipice: incorporation, listing and the ethical responsibilities of law firms. Available at SSRN: http://bit.ly/2jEl7YoGoogle Scholar
Parkin, F. (1974) Strategies of social closure in class formation. In Parkin, F. (ed.), The Social Analysis of Class Structure. London: Tavistock Publications, pp. 118.Google Scholar
Parks-Leduc, L., Rutherford, M., Becker, K., and Shahzad, A. (2017) The professionalization of human resource management: examining undergraduate curricula and the influence of professional organizations. Journal of Management Education 42(2): 211–38.Google Scholar
Parsons, T. (1954) Professional and social structure. In Parsons, T. (ed.), Essays in Sociological Theory. Glencoe: Free Press, pp. 3449.Google Scholar
Paton, P. D. (2010) Multidisciplinary Practice Redux: Globalization, Core Values, and Reviving the MDP Debate in America. Fordham Law Review 78(5): 2193–244.Google Scholar
Pelkmans, J. (2017) The New Restrictiveness Indicator for Professional Services: An Assessment. European Commission.Google Scholar
Peteraf, M. A. (1993) The cornerstones of competitive advantage: a resource‐based view. Strategic Management Journal 14(3): 171–91.Google Scholar
Philipsen, N. J. (2009) Regulation of liberal professions and competition policy: developments in the EU and China. Journal of Competition Law and Economics 6(2): 203–31.Google Scholar
Pichault, P., and McKeown, T. (2019) Autonomy at work in the gig economy: analysing work status, work content and working conditions of independent professionals. New Technology, Work and Employment 34(1): 5972.Google Scholar
Population Reference Bureau (2016, 2010, 2001) World Population Data Sheets. http://bit.ly/2zJNpdK.Google Scholar
Powell, M. J., Brock, D. M., and Hinings, C. R. (1999) The changing professional organization. In Powell, M. J., Brock, D. M., and Hinings, C. R. (eds), Restructuring the Professional Organization: Accounting, Health Care, and Law. London: Routledge, pp. 119.Google Scholar
Professional Associations Research Network (PARN) (2015) Professional Body Sector Review 2015. Bristol: PARN Global.Google Scholar
Quack, S., and Schüβler, E. (2015) Dynamics of regulation of professional service firms: national and transnational developments. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschack, J. and Hinings, B. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Services Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 4870.Google Scholar
Raelin, J. A. (1991) The Clash of Cultures: Managers Managing Professionals. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Reader, W. J. (1966) Professional Men: The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nineteenth Century England. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.Google Scholar
Redbird, B. (2017) The new closed shop? The economic and structural effects of occupational licensure. American Sociological Review 82(3): 600–24.Google Scholar
Reed, M. (1996) Expert power and control in late modernity: an empirical review and theoretical synthesis. Organization Studies 17(4): 573–97.Google Scholar
Reed, M. (2007) Engineers of human souls, faceless technocrats or merchants of morality? Changing professional forms and identities in the face of the neoliberal challenge. In Pinnington, A., Macklin, R., and Campbell, T. (eds), Human Resource Management: Ethics and Employment. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 171–89.Google Scholar
Rego, R., and Vardana, M. (2009) Professional associations. In Anheier, H. K. and Toepler, R. (eds), International Encyclopaedia of Civil Society. Springer Press, pp. 1250–5.Google Scholar
Remus, D., and Levey, F. (2016) Can Robots Be Lawyers? Computers, Lawyers, And The Practice Of Law. Available at SSRN: http://bit.ly/2Ao2nGW.Google Scholar
Rhode, D. L. (2015) The Trouble with Lawyers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ritzer, G., and Walczak, D. (1986) The changing nature of American medicine. The Journal of American Culture 9(4): 4351.Google Scholar
Rose, T., and Hinings, C. R. (1999) Global clients’ demands driving change in global business advisory firms. In Brock, D. M., Hinings, C. R., and Powell, M. J. (eds), Restructuring the Professional Organization. London: Routledge, pp. 4167.Google Scholar
Sako, M. 2015 Outsourcing and offshoring of professional services. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschak, J. and Hinings, B. (eds), The Handbook of Professional Services Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 327–47.Google Scholar
Saks, M. (2015) The Professions, State and the Market: Medicine in Britain, the United States and Russia. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Saks, M. (2016) Professions and power: a review of theories of professions and power. In Dent, M., Bourgeault, I. L., Denis, J., and Kuhlmann, E. (eds), The Routledge Companion to the Professions and Professionalism. London: Routledge, pp. 7186.Google Scholar
Samsonova-Taddei, A., and Humphrey, C. (2014) Transnationalism and the transforming roles of professional accountancy bodies: towards a research agenda. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 27(6): 903–32.Google Scholar
Sandholtz, K., Chung, D., and Waisberg, I. (2019) The double-edged sword of jurisdictional entrenchment: explaining human resources professionals’ failed strategic repositioning. Organization Science. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2019.1282.Google Scholar
Schneyer, T. (2013) ‘Professionalism’ as pathology: the ABA’s latest policy debate on non-lawyer ownership of law practice entities. Fordham Urban Law Journal 40(1): 75138.Google Scholar
Schön, D. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Schwab, K. (2016) The Fourth Industrial Revolution. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Sciulli, D. (2005) Continental sociology of professions today: Conceptual contributions. Current Sociology 53(6): 915–42.Google Scholar
Scott, C. (1966) Professionals in bureaucracies – areas of conflict. In Vollmer, H. M. and Mills, D. L. (eds), Professionalization. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 265–75.Google Scholar
Scott, W. R. (1965) Reactions to supervision in a heteronomous professional organization. Administrative Science Quarterly 10(1): 6581.Google Scholar
Scott, W. R. (2008) Lords of the dance: professionals as institutional agents. Organizational Studies 29(2): 219–38.Google Scholar
Scott, W. R., Ruef, M., Mendel, P. J., and Caronna, C. A. (2000) Institutional Change and Healthcare Organizations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sharma, A. (1997) Professional as agent: knowledge asymmetry in agency exchange. Academy of Management Review 22(3): 758–98.Google Scholar
Siebert, S., Martin, G., and Bozic, B. (2016) Research into employee trust: epistemological foundations and paradigmatic boundaries. Human Resource Management Journal 26(3): 269–84.Google Scholar
Siggelkow, N. (2002) Evolution toward Fit. Administrative Science Quarterly 47(1): 125–59.Google Scholar
Sikka, P. (2015) No accounting for tax avoidance. The Political Quarterly 86(3): 427–33.Google Scholar
Sikka, P., and Willmott, H. (2011) The dark side of transfer pricing: its role in tax avoidance and wealth retentiveness. Critical Perspectives on Accounting 21(4): 342–56.Google Scholar
Sikka, P., and Willmott, H. (2013) The tax avoidance industry: accountancy firms on the make. Critical Perspectives on International Business 9(4): 415–43.Google Scholar
Sikka, P., and Willmott, H. (2018) Regulating money laundering: a case study of the UK experience. In Morgan, G. and Engwall, L. (eds), Regulation and Organizations: International Perspectives: Volume 28. Industrial Economics. Kindle Edition. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 248–70.Google Scholar
Smets, M., Morris, T., and Malhotra, N. (2011) Changing career models and capacity for innovation in professional services. In Reihlen, M. and Werr, A. (eds), Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship in Professional Service Firms. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 127–47.Google Scholar
Smets, M., Morris, T., Von Nordenflycht, A., and Brock, D. M. (2017) 25 years since ‘P2’: Taking stock and charting the future of professional firms. Journal of Professions and Organization 4(2): 91111.Google Scholar
Sommerlad, H., and Ashley, L. (2015) Diversity and inclusion. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., and Broschak, J. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Service Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 452–75.Google Scholar
Spillman, L. (2012) Solidarity in Strategy. London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Spillman, L. (2018) Meta-organization matter. Journal of Management Inquiry 27(1): 1620.Google Scholar
Spillman, L., and Brophy, S. A. (2018) Professionalism as a cultural form: knowledge, craft, and moral agency. Journal of Professions and Organization 5(2), 155–66.Google Scholar
Stephen, F. H. (2013) Lawyers, Markets and Regulation. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, J. (2013) The Price of Inequality. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Suddaby, R., and Greenwood, R. (2001) Colonizing knowledge: commodification as a dynamic of jurisdictional expansion in professional service firms. Human Relations 54(7): 933–53.Google Scholar
Suddaby, R., and Muzio, D. (2015) Theoretical perspective on the professions. In Empson, L., Muzio, D., Broschack, J. and Hinings, B. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Services Firms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 2547.Google Scholar
Suddaby, R., and Viale, T. (2011) Professionals and field-level change: Institutional work and the professional project. Current Sociology 59(4): 423–41.Google Scholar
Suddaby, R., Cooper, D. J., and Greenwood, R. (2007) Transnational regulation of professional services: governance dynamics of field level organizational change. Accounting Organizations and Society 32(4–5): 333–62.Google Scholar
Susskind, R., and Susskind, D. (2015) The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Švarc, J. (2016) The knowledge worker is dead: what about professions? Current Sociology 64(3): 392410.Google Scholar
Terry, L. (2009) The European Commission project regarding competition in professional services. Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business 29(1): 1117.Google Scholar
The Law Society (2016) Trends in the Solicitors’ Profession: Annual Statistical Review. London: The Law Society.Google Scholar
The Law Society (2019) Lawtech Adoption Research. London: The Law Society. http://bit.ly/2FBA7kX.Google Scholar
Thomson Reuters, Oxford Saïd Business School and the Georgetown Law Center for the Study of the Legal Profession. (2017) Alternative legal service providers: Understanding the growth and benefits of these new legal providers. http://tmsnrt.rs/2B0bGtH.Google Scholar
Thornton, M. (2016) Squeezing the life out of lawyers: legal practice in the market embrace. Griffith Law Review 25(4): 471–91.Google Scholar
Thornton, P. H. (2002) The rise of the corporation in a craft industry: conflict and conformity in institutional logics. Academy of Management Journal 45: 81101.Google Scholar
Thornton, P. H., and Ocasio, W. (1999) Institutional logics and the historical contingency of power in organizations: executive succession in the higher education publishing industry, 1958–1990. American Journal of Sociology 105(3): 801–43.Google Scholar
Thornton, P. H., Ocasio, W., and Lounsbury, M. (2012). The Institutional Logics Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thornton, R. J., and Timmons, E. J. (2015) The de-licensing of occupations in the United States. Monthly Labor Review. http://bit.ly/2q9960V.Google Scholar
Timmermans, S. (2008) Professions and their work: do market shelters protect professional interests? Work and Occupations 35(2): 164–88.Google Scholar
Timmons, S. (2010) Professionalization and its discontents, Health 15(4): 337–52.Google Scholar
Tolbert, P. (1996) Occupations, organizations, and boundary-less careers. In Arthur, M. D. and Rousseau, D. M. (eds), The Boundary-less Career. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 331–49.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, J., Baird, M., Berg, P., and Cooper, R. (2018). Flexible careers across the life course: advancing theory, research and practice. Human Relations 71(1): 422.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, J., Muzio, D., Sommerlad, H., Webley, L., and Duff, L. (2013) Structure, agency and the career strategies of white women and BME individuals in the legal profession. Human Relations 66(2): 245–69.Google Scholar
Topol, E. (2015) The Patient Will See You Now: The Future of Medicine is in Your Hands. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Torstendahl, R. (1990) Introduction: promotion and strategies of knowledge-based groups. In Torstendahl, R. and Burrage, M. (eds), The Formation of the Professions. London: Sage, pp. 1–10.Google Scholar
Townley, B. (1994) Reframing Human Resource Management: Power, Ethics and the Subject at Work. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Trautman, L. J. (2017) Following the money: lessons from the Panama Papers: part 1: tip of the iceberg. Penn State Law Review 121: 807–73. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2783503.Google Scholar
Tschirhart, M., Lee, C., and Travinin, G. (2011) The Benefits of Credentialising Programmes to Membership Organizations. Washington: ASAE Foundation.Google Scholar
Vaheesan, S., and Pasquale, P. (2018) The politics of professionalism: reappraising occupational licensure and competition policy, Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14: 309–27.Google Scholar
Van Maanen, J., and Barley, S. (1984) Occupational communities: culture and control in organizations. Research in Organizational Behaviour 6: 287365.Google Scholar
Van Wijk, J. V., Stam, W., Elfring, T., Zietsma, C., and Den Hond, F. (2013) Activists and incumbents structuring change: the interplay of agency, culture and networks in field evolution. Academy of Management Journal 56(2): 358–86.Google Scholar
Verbeeten, F. H. M., and Speklé, R. F. (2015) Management control, results-oriented culture and public sector performance: empirical evidence on new public management. Organization Studies 36(7): 953–78.Google Scholar
Von Nordenflycht, A. (2010) What is a professional service firm? Toward a theory and taxonomy of knowledge intensive firms. Academy of Management Review 35(1): 155–74.Google Scholar
Von Nordenflycht, A. (2014) Does the emergence of publicly traded professional service firms undermine the theory of the professional partnership? A cross-industry historical analysis. Journal of Professions and Organization 1(2): 137–60.Google Scholar
Wajcman, J. (2017) Automation: is it really different this time? The British Journal of Sociology 68(1): 119–27.Google Scholar
Weeden, K. A. (2002) Why do some cccupations pay more than others? Social closure and earnings inequality in the United States. American Journal of Sociology 108(1): 55101.Google Scholar
Weeden, K. A., and Grusky, D. B. (2014) Inequality and market failure. American Behavioral Scientist 58(3): 473–91.Google Scholar
Wilensky, H. L. (1964) The professionalization of everyone? American Journal of Sociology 70(2): 137–58.Google Scholar
Wilkins, D. B., and Gulati, G. M. (1996) Why are there so few black lawyers in corporate law firms? An institutional analysis. California Law Review 84(3): 496625.Google Scholar
Wilkins, D. B., and Gulati, G. M. (1998) Reconceiving the tournament of lawyers: tracking seeding and information control in internal labour markets. Virginia Law Review 84(4): 1581–681.Google Scholar
Williams, M., and Koumenta, M. (2019) Occupational closure and job quality: The case of occupational licensing in Britain. Human Relations: 126 (online ready).Google Scholar
Witz, A. (1991) Professions and Patriarchy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wright, A. L., Zammuto, R. F., and Liesch, P. W. (2017) Maintaining the values of a profession: institutional work and moral emotions in the emergency department. Academy of Management Journal 60(1): 200–37.Google Scholar
Young, S. D. (2002) The Concise Encyclopaedia of Economics: Occupational Licensing. http://bit.ly/2qbE5JI.Google Scholar
Zuboff, S. (1988) In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Professional Occupations and Organizations
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Professional Occupations and Organizations
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Professional Occupations and Organizations
Available formats
×