Element contents
Inside the Radicalized Mind
The Neuropolitics of Terrorism and Violent Extremism
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 31 March 2025
Summary
This Element aims to better understand the role of the internet in the radicalization process, focusing on how online factors contribute to self-radicalization. Specifically, it examines the neurocognitive process of online radicalization by analyzing the impact of terrorist and extremist propaganda videos on individuals' cognitive empathy using electroencephalography (EEG). Ultimately, this research aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of online radicalization and the psychological effects of exposure to extremist content on the internet.
Keywords
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781009586207Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 24 April 2025
References
Alexander, I. D. and Poch, R. K. (2017) Innovative learning and teaching: Experiments across the disciplines. University of Minnesota Libraries. http://open.lib.umn.edu/innovativeteaching.Google Scholar
Alkan Härtwig, E., Aust, S., Heekeren, H. R., and Heuser, I. (2020) “No words for feelings? Not only for my own: Diminished emotional empathic ability in alexithymia,” Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, p. 112.Google ScholarPubMed
Allely, C. S. (2020) The psychology of extreme violence: A case study approach to serial homicide, mass shooting, school shooting, and lone-actor terrorism. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allendorfer, W. H. and Herring, S. C. (2015) “ISIS vs. the US government: A war of online video propaganda,” First Monday, 20(12), https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/6336/5165.Google Scholar
Alsobrook, J. P. 2nd and Pauls, D. L. (2000) “Genetics and violence,” Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9(4), pp. 765–776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amble, J. C. (2012) “Combating terrorism in the new media environment,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 35(5), pp. 339–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antilla, L. (2010) “Self-censorship and science: A geographical review of media coverage of climate tipping points,” Public Understanding of Science, 19(2), pp. 240–256.Google Scholar
Atran, S. (2021) “Psychology of transnational terrorism and extreme political conflict,” Annual Review of Psychology, 72(1), pp. 471–501.Google ScholarPubMed
Azam, J.-P. and Delacroix, A. (2006) “Aid and the delegated fight against terrorism,” Review of Development Economics, 10(2), pp. 330–344.Google Scholar
Azam, J.-P. and Thelen, V. (2008). “The roles of foreign aid and education in the war on terror,” Public Choice, 135, pp. 375–397, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-007-9268-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azam, J.-P. and Thelen, V. (2018) Fighting terrorism at source: Using foreign aid to delegate global security. Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
Baele, S. J., Boyd, K. A., and Coan, T. G. (Eds.). (2020). ISIS propaganda: A full-spectrum extremist message. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagozzi, R. P. and Moore, D. J. (1994) “Public service advertisements: Emotions and empathy guide prosocial behavior,” The Journal of Marketing, 56, pp. 56–70.Google Scholar
Baines, P. R., O’Shaughnessy, N. J., Moloney, K., et al. (2010) “The dark side of political marketing: Islamist propaganda, reversal theory and British Muslims,” European Journal of Marketing, 44(3–4), pp. 478–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, A. (2016) “Active learning with interactive videos: Creating student-guided learning materials,” Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning, 10(3–4), pp. 79–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, L. A., Raine, A., Liu, J., and Jacobson, K. C. (2008) “Differential genetic and environmental influences on reactive and proactive aggression in children,” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, pp. 1265–1278.Google Scholar
Baldner, C. and McGinley, J. J. (2014) “Correlational and exploratory factor analyses (EFA) of commonly used empathy questionnaires: New insights,” Motivation and Emotion, 38(5), pp. 727–744.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkun, M. (1990) “Racist apocalypse: Millennialism on the far right,” American Studies, 31(2), pp. 121–140.Google Scholar
Bartels, A. and Zeki, S. (2004) “Functional brain mapping during free viewing of natural scenes,” Human Brain Mapping, 21(2), pp. 75–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, J. C., Tausch, N., and Wagner, U. (2011) “Emotional consequences of collective action participation: Differentiating self-directed and outgroup-directed emotions,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(12), pp. 1587–1598.Google ScholarPubMed
Beevor, E. (2017) “Coercive radicalization: Charismatic authority and the internal strategies of ISIS and the Lord’s Resistance Army,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(6), pp. 496–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benford, R. D. and Snow, D. A. (2000) “Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment,” Annual Review of Sociology, 26, pp. 611–639.Google Scholar
Benton-Peterka, D. and Benton, B. (2023) “Online radicalization case study of a mass shooting: The Payton Gendron manifesto,” Journal for Deradicalization, 35, pp. 1–32.Google Scholar
Berg, R., Brand, A., Grant, J., Kirk, J. S., and Zimmerman, T. (2014) “Leveraging recorded mini-lectures to increase student learning,” Online Classroom. www.csusb.edu/sites/default/files/upload/file/Leveraging_Recorded_Mini-Lectures_to_Inc.pdf.Google Scholar
Berrebi, C. (2007) “Evidence about the link between education, poverty, and terrorism among Palestinians,” Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 13(1), pp. 1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bezdjian, S., Raine, A., Baker, L. A., and Lynam, D. R. (2011) “Psychopathic personality in children: Genetic and environmental contributions,” Psychological Medicine, 41(3), pp. 589–600.Google ScholarPubMed
Bilandzic, H. and Busselle, R. (2013) “Narrative persuasion,” in Dillard, J. P. and Shen, L. (eds.) The SAGE handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice. SAGE, pp. 200–219.Google Scholar
Binder, J. F. and Kenyon, J. (2022). “Terrorism and the internet: How dangerous is online radicalization?,” Frontiers in Psychology, p. 13, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.997390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. J. (2018) “Traits of empathy and anger: Implications for psychopathy and other disorders associated with aggression,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1744), pp. 1–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Blair, G., Fair, C. C., Malhotra, N., and Shapiro, J. N. (2013) “Poverty and support for militant politics: Evidence from Pakistan,” American Journal of Political Science, 57(1), pp. 30–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borum, R. (2011). “Radicalization into violent extremism I: A review of social science theories,” Journal of Strategic Security, 4(4), pp. 7–36, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26463910.Google Scholar
Borum, R. (2014) “Psychological vulnerabilities and propensities for involvement in violent extremism,” Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 32(3), pp. 286–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyns, D. and Ballard, J. D. (2004) “Developing a sociological theory for the empirical understanding of terrorism,” The American Sociologist, 35(2), pp. 5–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braddock, K. H. (2012) Fighting words: The persuasive effect of online extremist narratives on the radicalization process (Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University). Retrieved from https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/files/final_submissions/7610.Google Scholar
Braddock, K. and Dillard, J. (2016) “Meta-analytic evidence for the persuasive effect of narratives on beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors,” Communication Monographs, 83(4), pp. 446–467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brame, C. J. (2016) “Effective educational videos: Principles and guidelines for maximizing student learning from video content,” CBE-Life Sciences Education, 15(4), es6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branscombe, N. R. and Wann, D. L. (1994) “Collective self‐esteem consequences of outgroup derogation when a valued social identity is on trial,” European Journal of Social Psychology, 24(6), pp. 641–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruneau, E. (2016) “Understanding the terrorist mind,” Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science, 2016, Article Cer-13–16. November, https://www.dana.org/article/understanding-the-terrorist-mind/.Google Scholar
Bruneau, E. G., Cikara, M., and Saxe, R. (2017) “Parochial empathy predicts reduced altruism and the endorsement of passive harm,” Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8, pp. 934–942.Google ScholarPubMed
Buckels, E. and Trapnell, P. (2013) “Disgust facilitates out-group dehumanization,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16, pp. 771–780.Google Scholar
Burke, J. (2023, October 18) “Attacks across Europe put Islamist extremism back in spotlight,” The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/17/attacks-across-europe-put-islamist-extremism-back-in-spotlight.Google Scholar
Cahill, M., Migacheva, K., Taylor, J., et al. (2021) Understanding online hate speech as a motivator and predictor of hate crime. Los Angeles, California, 2017–2018 (ICPSR 37470) [Data set]. National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR37470.v1.Google Scholar
Campbell, R. and Babrow, A. (2004) “The role of empathy in responses to persuasive risk communication: Overcoming resistance to HIV prevention messages,” Health Communication, 16, pp. 159–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canetti, D. (2017) “Emotional distress, conflict ideology, and radicalization,” PS: Political Science & Politics, 50(4), pp. 940–943.Google Scholar
Carmichael, M., Reid, A.K., and Karpicke, J. D. (2018) Assessing the impact of educational video on student engagement, critical thinking and learning: The current state of play. A SAGE White Paper. https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/hevideolearning.pdf.Google Scholar
Carpenter, J. (1997) Revive us again: The reawakening of American fundamentalism. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Carr, D. (2014) “With videos of killings, ISIS sends medieval message by modern method,” The New York Times, 7, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/08/business/media/with-videos-of-killings-isis-hones-social-media-as-a-weapon.html.Google Scholar
Casebeer, W. and Russell, J. (2005) “Storytelling and terrorism: Towards a comprehensive ‘counter-narrative strategy’,” Strategic Insights, 4(3), https://ntrl.ntis.gov/NTRL/dashboard/searchResults/titleDetail/ADA521449.xhtml.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., et al. (2002) “Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children,” Science (New York, N.Y.), 297(5582), pp. 851–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cavanaugh, M. M. (2012) “Theories of violence: Social science perspectives,” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22(5), pp. 607–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chadee, D., Chadee, M., Brewster, D., and Surette, R. (2017) “Copycat crime dynamics: The interplay of empathy, narrative persuasion and risk with likelihood to commit future criminality,” Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 6(2), pp. 142–158. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000079.Google Scholar
Chaiken, S., Wood, W., and Eagly, A. H. (1996) “Principles of persuasion,” in Higgins, E. T. and Kruglanski, A. W. (eds.) Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. Guilford Press, pp. 702–742.Google Scholar
Cho, J., Boyle, M. P., Keum, H., et al. (2003) “Media, terrorism, and emotionality: Emotional differences in media content and public reactions to the September 11th terrorist attacks,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(3), pp. 309–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chory-Assad, R. and Cicchirillo, V. (2005) “Empathy and affective orientation as predictors of identification with television characters,” Communication Research Reports, 22, pp. 151–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christmann, K. (2012) Preventing religious radicalisation and violent extremism: A systematic review of the research evidence. Youth Justice Board.Google Scholar
Chrysikou, E. G. and Thompson, W. J. (2016) “Assessing cognitive and affective empathy through the interpersonal reactivity index: An argument against a two-factor model,” Assessment, 23(6), pp. 769–777.Google ScholarPubMed
Cialdini, R. B. and Goldstein, N. J. (2004) “Social influence: Compliance and conformity,” Annual Review of Psychology, 55, pp. 591–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clever, L., Schatto-Eckrodt, T., Clever, N. C., and Frischlich, L. (2023) “Behind blue skies: A multimodal automated content analysis of Islamic extremist propaganda on Instagram,” Social Media + Society, 9(1), 20563051221150404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (2006) “Audience identification with media characters,” in Bryant, J. and Vorderer, P. (eds.) Psychology of entertainment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 183–197.Google Scholar
Cohen, T. R. (2008) The effects of empathy on intergroup conflict and aggression: Examining the dual roles of empathy in fostering positive and negative intergroup relations (Doctoral dissertation). The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Cohen, S. J., Johansson, F., Kaati, L., and Mork, J. C. (2016) “Al-Qaeda’s propaganda decoded: A psycholinguistic system for detecting variations in terrorism ideology,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(5), pp. 1–30.Google Scholar
Collins, R. (2004) “Rituals of solidarity and security in the wake of terrorist attack,” Sociological Theory, 22(1), pp. 53–87.Google Scholar
Conway, M. (2016). “Determining the role of the internet in violent extremism and terrorism: Six suggestions for progressing research,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(1), pp. 77–98.Google Scholar
Corman, S. (2011) “Understanding the role of narrative in extremist strategic communication,” in Fenstermacher, L. and Canna, S. (eds.) Countering violent extremism: Scientific methods & strategies. Air Force Research Laboratory, pp. 36–43.Google Scholar
Council of Europe. (n.d.). Online Hate Speech and Hate Crime – Cyberviolence – www.coe.int. www.coe.int/en/web/cyberviolence/online-hate-speech-and-hate-crime.Google Scholar
Cozma, S.-G. (2014) “Islamic self-radicalization on the internet: A global process reflected nationally,” Romanian Intelligence Review, 12, pp. 69–82. www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=68124.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, M. (1998) “The logic of terrorism: Terrorist behavior as a product of strategic choice,” in Reich, W. (ed.) Origins of terrorism: Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states of mind. Woodrow Wilson Center Press, pp. 7–24.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, M. (2000) “The psychology of terrorism: An agenda for the 21st century,” Political Psychology, 21(2), pp. 405–420.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, M. (2012) “The causes of terrorism,” in Horgan, J. and Braddock, K. (eds.) Terrorism studies: A reader. Routledge, pp. 99–114.Google Scholar
Crilley, K. (2001) “Information warfare: New battle fields terrorists, propaganda and the Internet,” Aslib Proceedings, 53(7), pp. 294–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crockett, M. J., Clark, L., Hauser, M. D., and Robbins, T. W. (2010). “Serotonin selectively influences moral judgment and behavior through effects on harm aversion,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(40), pp. 17433–17438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damasio, A. (2004) “Emotions and feelings,” in Manstead, A. (ed.) Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam symposium. Cambridge University Press, pp. 48–58.Google Scholar
Da Silva, C., Kruglanski, A. W., and Pierro, A. (2024) “Significance quest: A meta-analysis on the association between the variables of the 3 N model and violent extremism,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(2), pp. 1184–1200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DataReportal. (2024, October) Digital 2024 October Global Statshot Report. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-october-global-statshot.Google Scholar
Davis, M. H. (1980) “A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy,” JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10(85), https://www.uv.es/~friasnav/Davis_1980.pdf.Google Scholar
Davis, M. H. (1983) “Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), pp. 113–126.Google Scholar
Davis, R. L. and O’Neill, P. (2016) “The hate crimes reporting gap: Low numbers keep tensions high,” The Police Chief, 83. www.policechiefmagazine.org/the-hate-crimes/.Google Scholar
Dawson, L. L. (2002) “Crises of charismatic legitimacy and violent behavior in new religious movements,” in Bromley, D. G. and Melton, J. G. (eds.) Cults, religion and violence. Cambridge University Press, pp. 80–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, L. L. (2006) “Psychopathologies and the attribution of charisma: A critical introduction to the psychology of charisma and the explanation of violence in new religious movements,” Nova Religio, 10(2), pp. 3–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dean, G. (2014) Neurocognitive risk assessment for the early detection of violent extremists. Springer Briefs in Criminology.Google Scholar
Decety, J. and Jackson, P. (2004) “The functional architecture of human empathy,” Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3, pp. 71–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decety, J. and Jackson, P. (2006) “A social neuroscience perspective on empathy,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, pp. 54–58.Google Scholar
Decety, J. and Lamm, C. (2006) “Human empathy through the lens of social neuroscience,” Scientific World Journal, 6, pp. 1146–1163.Google ScholarPubMed
Decety, J. and Yoder, K. J. (2016) “Empathy and motivation for justice: Cognitive empathy and concern, but not emotional empathy, predict sensitivity to injustice for others,” Social Neuroscience, 11(1), pp. 1–14.Google Scholar
Decety, J. and Workman, C. I. (2017) “The effects of poverty on the brain: A neurocognitive perspective,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(5), pp. 344–360.Google Scholar
Decety, J. and Yoder, K. J. (2017) “The emerging social neuroscience of justice motivation,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(1), pp. 6–14.Google ScholarPubMed
DeCorte, K., Buysse, A., Verhofstadt, L. L., et al. (2007) “Measuring empathic tendencies: Reliability and validity of the Dutch version of the interpersonal reactivity index,” Psychologica Belgica, 47(4), p. 235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delić, D. (2022) 20 Online hate crime statistics and facts for 2024. ProPrivacy.com. https://proprivacy.com/blog/online-hate-crime-statistics-and-facts-2022.Google Scholar
Della Porta, D. and LaFree, G. (2012) “Guest editorial: Processes of radicalization and de-radicalization,” International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), 6(1), pp. 4–10.Google Scholar
Deloughery, K., King, R. D., and Asal, V. (2012) “Close cousins or distant relatives? The relationship between terrorism and hate crime,” Crime & Delinquency, 58(5), pp. 663–688.Google Scholar
DeZavala, A. G., Cislak, A., and Wesołowska, E. (2010) “Political conservatism, need for cognitive closure, and intergroup hostility,” Political Psychology, 31(4), pp. 521–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Domestic Terrorism Prevention Act of 2019 (2019) U.S. Senate Bill S.894. U.S. Senate, 116th Congress, 1st Session. www.congress.gov/116/bills/s894/BILLS-116s894is.xml.Google Scholar
Donoghue, T., Dominguez, J., and Voytek, B. (2020) “Electrophysiological frequency band ratio measures conflate periodic and aperiodic neural activity,” Eneuro, 7(6), pp. 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., et al. (2016) “Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization,” Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, pp. 79–84.Google Scholar
Doxsee, C. and Adler, L. (2024, February 9) “Asked and answered: Global terrorism threat assessment 2024,” Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). www.csis.org/analysis/asked-and-answered-global-terrorism-threat-assessment-2024.Google Scholar
Dreißigacker, A., Müller, P., Isenhardt, A., and Schemel, J. (2024) “Online hate speech victimization: Consequences for victims’ feelings of insecurity,” Crime Science, 13(4), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-024-00204-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durkheim, E. (1984) The division of labor in society (W. D. Halls, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1893)Google Scholar
Durkheim, E. (1995) The elementary forms of religious life (Fields, K. E., Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1912).Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N. and Miller, P. A. (1987) “The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors,” Psychological Bulletin, 101(1), pp. 91–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elmasry, M. H. and el-Nawawy, M. (2020) “Can a non-Muslim mass shooter be a ‘terrorist’?: A comparative content analysis of the Las Vegas and Orlando shootings,” Journalism Practice, 14(7), pp. 863–879.Google Scholar
Enders, W. and Sandler, T. (2011). The political economy of terrorism (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Enders, W. and Sandler, T. (2012) “The economics of terrorism and counterterrorism: What matters and is rational-choice theory helpful?” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 56(2), pp. 214–231.Google Scholar
Espiritu, A. (2004) “Racial diversity and hate crime incidents,” The Social Science Journal, 41(2), pp. 197–208.Google Scholar
Europol. (2016). European Union terrorism situation and trend report (TE-SAT) 2016. European Police Office. Available at: https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/europol_tesat_2016.pdf.Google Scholar
Falk, E. B., Rameson, L., Berkman, E. T., et al. (2010) “The neural correlates of persuasion: A common network across cultures and media,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(11), pp. 2447–2459.Google ScholarPubMed
“Far-Right Terrorism Increase in the West Explained” (2021, September 7) Institute for economics & peace. www.visionofhumanity.org/explainer-far-right-terrorism-in-the-west/.Google Scholar
Fearon, J. D. and Laitin, D. D. (2003) “Ethnicity, insurgency, and civil war,” American Political Science Review, 97(1), pp. 75–90.Google Scholar
Feddes, A. R., Mann, L., and Doosje, B. (2015) “Increasing self-esteem and empathy to prevent violent radicalization: A longitudinal quantitative evaluation of a resilience training focused on adolescents with a dual identity,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 45(7), pp. 400–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, K. (2016) Countering violent extremism through media and communication strategies: A review of the evidence. Partnership for Conflict, Crime & Security Research (PaCCS). www.paccsresearch.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Countering-Violent-Extremism-Through-Media-and-Communication-Strategies-.pdf.Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J. and Beaver, K. M. (2009) “Natural born killers: The genetic origins of extreme violence,” Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(5), pp. 286–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisogni, P. (2019) “Cyber terrorism and self-radicalization – Emergent phenomena of onlife age: An essay through the general system theory,” International Journal of Cyber Warfare and Terrorism, 9(3), pp. 21–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freytag, A., Krüger, J. J., Meierrieks, D., and Schneider, F. G. (2009). “The origins of terrorism: Cross-country estimates on socio-economic determinants of terrorism,” Jena Economic, Research Papers, No. 2009-009. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/31767/1/593202562.PDF.Google Scholar
Freytag, A., Krüger, J. J., Meierrieks, D., and Schneider, F. (2011) “The origins of terrorism: Cross-country estimates on socio-economic determinants of terrorism,” European Journal of Political Economy, 27(1), pp. S5–S16.Google Scholar
Gambhir, H. (2014) Dabiq: The strategic messaging of the Islamic State. Institute for the Study of War.Google Scholar
Ganor, B. (2002) “Defining terrorism: Is one man’s terrorist another man’s freedom fighter?” Police Practice and Research, 3(4), pp. 287–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia-Arocena, D. (2015) The genetics of violent behavior. The Jackson Laboratory. www.jax.org/news-and-insights/jax-blog/2015/december/the-genetics-of-violent-behavior.Google Scholar
Gasser, T., Verleger, R., Bächer, P., and Sroka, L. (1988) “Development of the EEG of school-age children and adolescents: I. Analysis of band power,” Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 69(2), pp. 91–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geelhoed, F. (2011) “Fundamentalism,” in Ross, J. I. (ed.) Religion and violence: An encyclopedia of faith and conflict from antiquity to the present. M.E. Sharpe, p. 368.Google Scholar
Gendron, A. (2017) “The call to jihad: Charismatic preachers and the internet,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(1), pp. 44–61.Google Scholar
Gill, P., Corner, E., Conway, M., et al. (2017). “Terrorist use of the Internet by the numbers: Quantifying behaviors, patterns, and processes,” Criminology & Public Policy, 16(1), pp. 99–117.Google Scholar
Glenn, A. L. and Raine, A. (2014) Psychopathy: An introduction to biological findings and their implications (Vol. 1). NYU Press.Google Scholar
Goldie, P. (1999) “How we think of others’ emotions,” Mind & Language, 14(4), pp. 394–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez, J. (2020, June 13) “To boost higher-order thinking, try curation,” Cult of Pedagogy. www.cultofpedagogy.com/curation/.Google Scholar
Gunning, J. (2007) “A case for critical terrorism studies?” Government and Opposition, 42(3), pp. 363–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guo, P. J., Kim, J., and Rubin, R. (2014) “How video production affects student engagement: An empirical study of MOOC videos,” Proceedings of the First ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale Conference, pp. 41–50.Google Scholar
Hadden, B. W., Øverup, C. S., and Knee, C. R. (2014) “Removing the ego: Need fulfillment, self-image goals, and self-presentation,” Self and Identity, 13(3), pp. 274–293.Google Scholar
Hamid, N., Pretus, C., Atran, S., et al. (2019) “Neuroimaging ‘Will to Fight’ for sacred values: An empirical case study with supporters of an Al Qaeda associate,” Royal Society Open Science, 6(6), https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.181585.Google Scholar
Hamid, N. and Ariza, C. (2022). Offline versus online radicalization: Which is the bigger threat? Tracing outcomes of 439 jihadist terrorists between 2014–2021 in 8 Western countries. GNET report. Available at: https://gnet-research.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/GNET-Report-Offline-Versus-Online-Radicalization.pdf.Google Scholar
Hamm, M. S. and Spaaij, R. F. J. (2017) The age of lone wolf terrorism. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Hancock, J. B., Beaver, D. I., Chung, C. K., et al. (2010) “Social language processing: A framework for analyzing the communication of terrorists and authoritarian regimes,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 2(2), pp. 108–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartleb, F. (2020) Lone wolves: The new terrorism of right-wing single actors. Springer International.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasson, U., Nir, Y., Levy, I., Fuhrmann, G., and Malach, R. (2004) “Intersubject synchronization of cortical activity during natural vision,” Science, 303(5664), pp. 1634–1640.Google ScholarPubMed
Heath-Kelly, C. (2013) “Counter-terrorism and the counterfactual: Producing the ‘radicalisation’ discourse and the UK Prevent strategy,” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 15(3), pp. 394–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herring, S. C. (2004) “Content analysis for new media: Rethinking the paradigm,” in New research for new media: Innovative research methodologies symposium working papers and readings. University of Minnesota School of Journalism and Mass Communication, pp. 47–66, https://homes.luddy.indiana.edu/herring/newmedia.pdf.Google Scholar
Herring, S. C. (2009) “Web content analysis: Expanding the paradigm,” in Noor, H. H. and Schmid, R. F. J. (eds.) International handbook of internet research. Springer Netherlands, pp. 233–249.Google Scholar
Hess, G. D. and Blomberg, S. B. (2008) “From (no) butter to guns? Understanding the economic role in terrorism,” in Keefer, P. and Loayza, N. (eds.) Terrorism, economic development, and political openness. Cambridge University Press, pp. 83–115.Google Scholar
Hewstone, M. and Cairns, E. (2001) “Social psychology and intergroup conflict,” in Chirot, D. and Seligman, M. (eds.) Ethnopolitical warfare: Causes, consequences, and possible solutions. American Psychological Association, pp. 319–342.Google Scholar
Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., Voci, A., et al. (2004). “Intergroup contact in a divided society: Challenging segregation in Northern Ireland,” In Social psychology of inclusion and exclusion. Psychology Press, pp. 283–310.Google Scholar
Himichi, T. and Nomura, M. (2015) “Modulation of empathy in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex facilitates altruistic behavior: An fNIRS study,” Journal of Integrative Neuroscience, 14(2), pp. 207–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, B. (2006) Inside terrorism (Revised and Expanded ed.). Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Hoffman, S. (2023, October 31) “Interpersonal reactivity index – Psychology,” Eckerd College. www.eckerd.edu/psychology/iri/.Google Scholar
Hofmann, D. C. (2015) “Quantifying and qualifying charisma: A theoretical framework for measuring the presence of charismatic authority in terrorist groups,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(9), pp. 710–733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofmann, D. C. (2016) “The influence of charismatic authority on operational strategies and attack outcomes of terrorist groups,” Journal of Strategic Security, 9(2), pp. 14–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofmann, D. C. and Dawson, L. L. (2014) “The neglected role of charismatic authority in the study of terrorist groups and radicalization,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37(4), pp. 348–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollewell, G. F. and Longpré, N. (2022) “Radicalization in the social media era: Understanding the relationship between self-radicalization and the internet,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 66(8), pp. 896–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horgan, J. (2024) Terrorist minds: The psychology of violent extremism from Al-Qaeda to the far right. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Howard, T. (2008) “Revisiting state failure: Developing a causal model of state failure based upon theoretical insight,” Civil Wars, 10(2), pp. 125–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howard, T. (2010a) “Failed states and the spread of terrorism in sub-Saharan Africa,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 33(11), pp. 960–988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howard, T. (2010b) The tragedy of failure: Evaluating state failure and its impact on the spread of refugees, terrorism, and war. ABC-CLIO.Google Scholar
Howard, T. (2014) Failed states and the origins of violence: A comparative analysis of state failure as a root cause of terrorism and political violence. Routledge.Google Scholar
Howard, T., Poston, B., and Benning, S. D. (2019) “The neurocognitive process of digital radicalization: A theoretical model and analytical framework,” Journal for Deradicalization, Summer (19), pp. 122–148, https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/issue/view/21.Google Scholar
Howard, T., Poston, B., and Lopez, A. (2022) “Extremist radicalization in the virtual era: Analyzing the neurocognitive process of online radicalization,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 47(8), pp. 862–887, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.2016558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hummell, W. and Huntress, K. (1949). The analysis of propaganda. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, p. 2.Google Scholar
Huppert, T. J., Hoge, R. D., Diamond, S. G., Franceschini, M. A., and Boas, D. A. (2006). “A temporal comparison of BOLD, ASL, and NIRS hemodynamic responses to motor stimuli in adult humans,” NeuroImage, 29(2), pp. 368–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.08.065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Husna, S. (2020, July) “Into the mind of terrorist & violent-extremist: A neuroscience perspective & review on radicalization,” in Annual International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities (AICOSH 2020). Atlantis Press, pp. 1–5.Google Scholar
Ilardi, G. J. (2001) “Redefining the issues: The future of terrorism research and the search for empathy,” in Silke, A. (ed.) Research on terrorism: Trends, achievements & failures. Frank Cass, pp. 16–35.Google Scholar
Inan, Y. (2007). “Cyber terrorism: The new kind of terrorism,” Journal of Information Technology Impact, 7(2), pp. 93–104.Google Scholar
Influs, M., Hackman, J., Feldman, R., and Hendler, T. (2019) “A social neuroscience approach to conflict resolution: Dialogue intervention to Israeli and Palestinian youth impacts oxytocin and empathy,” Social Neuroscience, 14(4), pp. 378–389, https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2018.1544329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ito, T. A. and Kubota, J. T. (2023, January 18) “7.1: Social neuroscience,” Social Sci LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Psychology/Introductory_Psychology/Psychology_as_a_Biological_Science_(Noba)/07%3A_Social/7.01%3A_Social_Neuroscience.Google Scholar
Ito, T. A. and Kubota, J. T. (2024) “Social neuroscience,” in Biswas-Diener, R. and Diener, E. (eds.) Noba textbook series: Psychology. DEF. https://nobaproject.com/modules/social-neuroscience.Google Scholar
Jääskeläinen, I. P., Koskentalo, K., Balk, M. H., et al. (2008) “Inter-subject synchronization of prefrontal cortex hemodynamic activity during natural viewing,” The Open Neuroimaging Journal, 2(1), 14–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Jabbi, M., Swart, M., and Keysers, C. (2007) “Empathy for positive and negative emotions in the gustatory cortex,” NeuroImage, 34(4), pp. 1744–1753.Google ScholarPubMed
Jackson, R. (2007) “The core commitments of critical terrorism studies,” European Political Science, 6(3), pp. 244–251.Google Scholar
Jasko, K., Szastok, M., Grzymała-Moszczyńska, J., Maj, M., and Kruglanski, A. W. (2019) “Rebel with a cause: Personal significance from political activism predicts willingness to self‐sacrifice,” Journal of Social Issues, 75(1), pp. 314–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jasper, J. (1998) “The emotions of protest: Affective and reactive emotions in and around social movements,” Sociological Forum, 13(3), pp. 397–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jasper, J. and Poulsen, J. (1995) “Recruiting strangers and friends: Moral shocks and social networks in animal rights and anti-nuclear protests,” Social Problems, 42(4), pp. 493–512.Google Scholar
Jastorff, J. and Orban, G. A. (2009) “Human functional magnetic resonance imaging reveals separation and integration of shape and motion cues in biological motion processing,” The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(22), pp. 7315–7329.Google ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, J. C. (1983) “Resource mobilization theory and the study of social movements,” Annual Review of Sociology, 9(1), pp. 527–553.Google Scholar
Jensen, M., James, P., and Tinsley, H. (2015) Profiles of individual radicalization in the United States: An empirical assessment of domestic radicalization. START, College Park, Maryland. www.start.umd.edu/pubs/PIRUS%20Fact%20Sheet_Jan%202015.pdf.Google Scholar
Jensen, M., James, P., Yates, E., and Tinsley, H. (2018) The use of social media by United States extremists. START, College Park, Maryland. www.start.umd.edu/pubs/START_PIRUS_UseOfSocialMediaByUSExtremists_ResearchBrief_July2018.pdf.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. (2018) “The self-radicalization of white men: ‘Fake news’ and the affective networking of paranoia,” Communication, Culture & Critique, 11(1), pp. 100–115.Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. and Oatley, K. (2000) “Cognitive and social construction in emotions,” in Lewis, M. and Haviland-Jones, J. M. (eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed.), Guilford Press, pp. 458–475.Google Scholar
Kanwisher, N. and Yovel, G. (2006) “The fusiform face area: A cortical region specialized for the perception of faces,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 361(1476), pp. 2109–2128.Google ScholarPubMed
Karimova, E. D., Smolskaya, D. V., and Naratkina, A. A. (2023) “Activity of the mirror neuron system in people with depressive symptomatology,” Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology, 53(7), pp. 1202–1209.Google Scholar
Kauttonen, J., Hlushchuk, Y., and Tikka, P. (2015) “Optimizing methods for linking cinematic features to fMRI data,” NeuroImage, 110, pp. 136–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenyon, J., Binder, J., and Baker-Beall, C. (2021) Exploring the role of the Internet in radicalisation and offending of convicted extremists. Ministry of Justice. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/614088c2e90e070442fbdde2/exploring-role-internet-radicalisation.pdf.Google Scholar
Kenyon, J., Binder, J., and Baker-Beall, C. (2022). “Understanding the role of the internet in the process of radicalisation: An analysis of convicted extremists in England and Wales,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 47(12), pp. 1747–1771. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2022.2065902.Google Scholar
Khalil, J., Horgan, J., and Zeuthen, M. (2022) “The Attitudes-Behaviors Corrective (ABC) model of violent extremism,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 34(3), pp. 425–450.Google Scholar
Kilner, J. M. and Lemon, R. N. (2013) “What we know currently about mirror neurons,” Current Biology, 23(23), pp. R1057–R1062.Google ScholarPubMed
Klasen, M., Wolf, D., Eisner, P. et al. (2018) “Neural networks underlying trait aggression depend on MAOA gene alleles,” Brain Structure & Function, 223(2), pp. 873–881.Google ScholarPubMed
Knight, A. (2007) “Jihad and cross-cultural media: Osama bin Laden as reported in the Asian press,” Pacific Journalism Review, 13(2), pp. 155–174.Google Scholar
Knight, S., Woodward, K., and Lancaster, G. (2017) Violent versus non-violent actors: An empirical study of different types of extremism. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Knight, S., Keatley, D., and Woodward, K. (2019) “Comparing the different behavioral outcomes of extremism: A comparison of violent and non-violent extremists, acting alone or as part of a group,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 45(8), pp. 682–703.Google Scholar
Koomen, W. and Van Der Pligt, J. (2016) The psychology of radicalization and terrorism. Routledge.Google Scholar
Kosiński, J., Szklanny, K., Wieczorkowska, A., and Wichrowski, M. (2018) “An analysis of game-related emotions using EMOTIV EPOC,” in 2018 Federated conference on computer science and information systems (FedCSIS). IEEE, pp. 913–917.Google Scholar
Kraidy, M. (2017) “The projectilic image: Islamic State’s digital visual warfare and global networked affect,” Media, Culture & Society, 39(8), pp. 1194–1209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krakowski, M. (2003) “Violence and serotonin: Influence of impulse control, affect regulation, and social functioning,” The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 15(3), pp. 294–305.Google ScholarPubMed
Krueger, A. (2007) What makes a terrorist: Economics and the roots of terrorism. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Krueger, A. and Malečková, J. (2003) “Education, poverty, and terrorism: Is there a causal connection?” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 17(4), pp. 119–144.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Jasko, K., Webber, D., Chernikova, M., and Molinario, E. (2018) “The making of violent extremists,” Review of General Psychology, 22(1), pp. 107–120.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Gunaratna, R., and Bélanger, J. J. (2019) The three pillars of radicalization: Needs, narratives, and networks. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W. and Ellenberg, M. (2020) “The quest for personal significance and ideological violence,” AJOB Neuroscience, 11(4), pp. 285–287.Google ScholarPubMed
Kruglanski, A. W., Kopetz, C., and Szumowska, E. (2022a) The psychology of extremism: A motivational perspective. Routledge.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Molinario, E., Jasko, K., et al. (2022b) “Significance-quest theory,” Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(4), pp. 1050–1071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kundnani, A. (2012) “Radicalisation: The journey of a concept,” Race & Class, 54(2), pp. 3–25.Google Scholar
Kurrild-Klitgaard, P., Justesen, M. K., and Klemmensen, R. (2006) “The political economy of freedom, democracy and transnational terrorism,” Public Choice, 128(1/2), pp. 289–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, B. (2007). “‘Draining the Swamp’: An empirical examination of the production of international terrorism, 1968–1998,” Conflict Management and Peace Science, 24(4), pp. 297–310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26275248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lankinen, K., Saari, J., Hari, R., and Koskinen, M. (2014) “Intersubject consistency of cortical MEG signals during movie viewing,” NeuroImage, 92, pp. 217–224.Google ScholarPubMed
Large, M. E., Cavina-Pratesi, C., Vilis, T., and Culham, J. C. (2008) “The neural correlates of change detection in the face perception network,” Neuropsychologia, 46(8), pp. 2169–2176.Google ScholarPubMed
Lee, M. F. and Simms, H. (2008) “American millenarianism and violence: Origins and expression,” Journal for the Study of Radicalism, 1(2), pp. 107–127.Google Scholar
Lee, J., Kim, T. W., Lee, C. S., and Koo, C. (2022) “Integrated approach to evaluating the effect of indoor CO2 concentration on human cognitive performance and neural responses in office environment,” Journal of Management in Engineering, 38(1), https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/%28ASCE%29ME.1943-5479.0000993.Google Scholar
Leitch, S. and Pickering, P. (2022) Rethinking social media and extremism. ANU Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemieux, A. F. (2006) “Social psychological approaches to understanding and preventing terrorism: Toward an interdisciplinary perspective,” Journal of Security Education, 1(4), pp. 75–83.Google Scholar
Lemieux, A. F. and Pratto, F. (2003) “Poverty and prejudice,” in Carr, S. and Sloan, T. (eds.) Poverty and psychology: Emergent critical practice. Kluwer Academic, pp. 147–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, D. (2019) “The rise of the self-radicalized lone wolf terrorist,” Vision of Humanity. www.visionofhumanity.org/increase-in-self-radicalised-lone-wolf-attackers/.Google Scholar
Lupu, Y., Radford, B., Spry, E., and Thomas, K. (2023) “Offline events and online hate,” PLOS ONE, 18(1), p. e0278511, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Majdandžić, J., Amashaufer, S., Hummer, A., Windischberger, C., and Lamm, C. (2016) “The selfless mind: How prefrontal involvement in mentalizing with similar and dissimilar others shapes empathy and prosocial behavior,” Cognition, 157, pp. 24–38.Google ScholarPubMed
Maogoto, J. N. (2003) “War on the enemy: Self-defence and state-sponsored terrorism,” Melbourne Journal of International Law, 4(2), pp. 406–438.Google Scholar
Maskaliūnaitė, A. (2015) “Exploring the theories of radicalization,” International Studies: Interdisciplinary Political and Cultural Journal (IS), 17(1), pp. 9–26.Google Scholar
Matar, D. (2015) “Hassan Nasrallah: The cultivation of image and language in the making of a charismatic leader,” Communication, Culture & Critique, 8(3), pp. 433–447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsumoto, D., Frank, M., and Hwang, H. (2015) “The role of intergroup emotions in political violence,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(5), pp. 369–373.Google Scholar
McCarthy, J. D. and Zald, M. N. (1977) “Resource mobilization and social movements: A partial theory,” American Journal of Sociology, 82(6), pp. 1212–1241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCauley, C. and Moskalenko, S. (2008) “Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways toward terrorism,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(3), pp. 415–433.Google Scholar
McCauley, C. and Moskalenko, S. (2010) “Recent US thinking about terrorism and counterterrorism: Baby steps towards a dynamic view of asymmetric conflict,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 22(4), pp. 641–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCauley, C. and Moskalenko, S. (2011) Friction: How radicalization happens to them and us. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McCauley, C. and Moskalenko, S. (2017a) “Lone wolf terrorists: What motivates them?” Defence Procurement International (March). www.defenceprocurementinternational.com/features/land/lone-wolf-terrorist-attacks-on-the-west.Google Scholar
McCauley, C. and Moskalenko, S. (2017b) “Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model,” The American Psychologist, 72(3), pp. 205–216.Google ScholarPubMed
McDermott, R., Tingley, D., Cowden, J., Frazzetto, G., and Johnson, D. D. P. (2009) “Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(7), pp. 2118–2123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDowell-Smith, A., Speckhard, A., and Yayla, A. S. (2017) “Beating ISIS in the digital space: Focus testing ISIS defector counter-narrative videos with American college students,” Journal for Deradicalization, 10, pp. 50–76.Google Scholar
McLernon, F., Cairns, E., Hewstone, M., and Smith, R. (2003) “Memories of recent conflict and forgiveness in Northern Ireland,” in Cairns, E. and Roe, M. D. (eds.) The role of memory in ethnic conflict. Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 125–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, L. (2006a) “The terrorist mind: I. A psychological and political analysis,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 50(2), pp. 121–138.Google Scholar
Miller, L. (2006b) “The terrorist mind: II. Typologies, psychopathologies, and practical guidelines for investigation,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 50(3), pp. 255–268.Google ScholarPubMed
Moghaddam, F. M. (2005) “The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration,” The American Psychologist, 60(2), pp. 161–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moghaddam, F. M. and Marsella, A. J. (2004) Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences, and interventions. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, T. (2012) “Extracting and networking emotions in extremist propaganda,” in Intelligence and Security Informatics Conference (EISIC), 2012 European. IEEE, pp. 3–8, https://doi.org/10.1109/EISIC.2012.16.Google Scholar
Müller, M. and Pillay, N. (2024) “Cognitive flexibility in urban yellow mongooses, Cynictis penicillata,” Animal Cognition, 27(1), Article 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-024-01839-9.Google Scholar
Nasser-Eddine, M., Garnham, B., Agostino, K., and Caluya, G. (2011) Countering violent extremism (CVE) literature review counter terrorism and security technology centre. Australian Government, Department of Defence. http://dspace.dsto.defence.gov.au/dspace/bitstream/1947/10150/1/DSTO-TR-2522%20PR.pdf.Google Scholar
Newman, E. (2006) “Exploring the ‘root causes’ of terrorism,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 29(8), pp. 749–772.Google Scholar
Neumann, P. R. (2013) “The trouble with radicalization,” International Affairs, 89(4), pp. 873–893.Google Scholar
Neumann, D. L. and Westbury, H. R. (2011) “The psychophysiological measurement of empathy,” in Decety, J. (ed.) The Oxford handbook of the development of empathy. Oxford University Press, pp. 119–142.Google Scholar
Neumann, D. L., Chan, R. C. K., Wang, Y., and Boyle, G. J. (2015) “Measures of empathy: Self-report, behavioral, and neuroscientific approaches,” in Boyle, G. J., Saklofske, D. H., and Matthews, G. (eds.) Measures of personality and social psychological constructs. Academic Press, pp. 257–289.Google Scholar
Obaidi, M., Anjum, G., Bierwiaczonek, K., et al. (2023) “Cultural threat perceptions predict violent extremism via need for cognitive closure,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 120(20), https://www.pnas.org/doi/epub/10.1073/pnas.2213874120.Google ScholarPubMed
Oberschall, A. (2004) “Explaining terrorism: The contribution of collective action theory,” Sociological Theory, 22(1), pp. 26–37.Google Scholar
Ofcom and Traverse (2023) Qualitative research into the impact of online hate: Final report. www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/252740/qual-research-impact-of-online-hate.pdf.Google Scholar
Office of the National Security Advisor (2015) National security strategy. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/2015_national_security_strategy_2.pdf.Google Scholar
O’Loughlin, B., Boudeau, C., and Hoskins, A. (2011) “Distancing the extraordinary: Audience understandings of discourses of ‘radicalization’,” Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 25(2), pp. 153–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oosterwijk, S., Lindquist, K. A., Anderson, E. C., and Barrett, L. F. (2012) “States of mind: Emotions, body feelings, and thoughts share distributed neural networks,” NeuroImage, 62(3), pp. 2110–2128.Google ScholarPubMed
Oxford University Press (2010) Oxford English dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the internet is hiding from you. Penguin Press.Google Scholar
Parker, A. (2020) “Self-radicalization in the United States via social media and other online forums,” in Khasru, S. M. (ed.) The digital age, cyber space, and social media: The challenges of security & radicalization. IPAG, pp. 31–41. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341830466_The_Digital_Age_Cyber_Space_and_Social_Media_The_Challenges_of_Security_Radicalization_edited_by_Syed_M_Khasru_Institute_for_Policy_Advocacy_and_Governance_IAPG_Allison_Wylde_Chapter_13_Resilience_Rev.Google Scholar
Payne, K. (2009). Winning the battle of ideas: Propaganda, ideology, and terror. Praeger Security International.Google Scholar
Peelen, M. V. and Downing, P. E. (2005) “Within‐subject reproducibility of category‐specific visual activation with functional MRI,” Human Brain Mapping, 25(4), pp. 402–408.Google ScholarPubMed
Petrosyan, A. (2022) “Impact of online hate and harassment in the U.S. 2020,” Statista. www.statista.com/statistics/971876/societal-impact-of-online-hate-harassment-usa/.Google Scholar
Piazza, J. (2007) “Draining the swamp: Democracy promotion, state failure, and terrorism in 19 Middle Eastern countries,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 30(6), pp. 521–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piazza, J. A. (2008). “Incubators of terror: Do failed and failing states promote transnational terrorism?” International Studies Quarterly, 52(3), pp. 469–488.Google Scholar
Pisiou, D. (2012) Islamist radicalization in Europe: An occupational change process. Routledge.Google Scholar
Post, J. M. (2007) The mind of the terrorist: The psychology of terrorism from the IRA to Al-Qaeda (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Prem, A. S. (2024, February 6) “The creeping ascent of the far-right in mainstream European politics and how to stop it,” LSE Undergraduate Political Review. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lseupr/2024/02/06/the-creeping-ascent-of-the-far-right-in-mainstream-european-politics-and-how-to-stop-it/ (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Preston, S. and de Waal, F. (2002) “Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25(1), pp. 1–72.Google ScholarPubMed
Pretus, C., Hamid, N., Sheikh, H., et al. (2018) “Neural and behavioral correlates of sacred values and vulnerability to violent extremism,” Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2024.Google ScholarPubMed
Qvortrup, M. (2024). The political brain: The emergence of neuropolitics. Central European University Press.Google Scholar
Rajakumar, V. (2013) “Alternative perspectives on the radicalization of home-grown and ‘leaderless’ terrorists,” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 5(8), pp. 20–22.Google Scholar
Ramirez, R. and Vamvakousis, Z. (2012) “Detecting emotion from EEG signals using the Emotiv EPOC device,” in He, Y., Wu, Z., and Lin, W. (eds.) Brain informatics: Proceedings of the 2012 international conference on brain informatics. Springer, pp. 62–70.Google Scholar
Rapoport, D. (2022) Waves of global terrorism: From 1879 to the present. Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, A., Whittaker, J., and Votta, F. (2019). “Radical filter bubbles: Social media personalisation algorithms and extremist content,” Internet Policy Review, 8(4).Google Scholar
Reiss, D., Leve, L. D., and Neiderhiser, J. M. (2013) “How genes and the social environment moderate each other,” American Journal of Public Health, 103(Suppl 1), pp. S111–S121.Google ScholarPubMed
Relia, K., Li, Z., Cook, S. H., and Chunara, R (2019) “Race, ethnicity and national origin-based discrimination in social media and hate crimes across 100 U.S. cities,” arXiv.Org. January 3. https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.00119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rieger, D., Frischlich, L., and Bente, G. (2013) “Propaganda 2.0: Psychological effects of right-wing and Islamic extremist internet videos,” Media and Communication, 1(1), pp. 39–50.Google Scholar
Rieger, D., Frischlich, L., and Bente, G. (2020) “Dealing with the dark side: The effects of right-wing extremist and Islamist extremist propaganda from a social identity perspective,” Media, War & Conflict, 13(3), pp. 280–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rifkind, G. (2018) The psychology of political extremism: What would Sigmund Freud have thought about Islamic State? Routledge, pp. 55–74.Google Scholar
Robinson, M. D. and Dauber, C. E. (2019) “Grading the quality of ISIS videos: A metric for assessing the technical sophistication of digital video propaganda,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 42(1–2), pp. 70–87.Google Scholar
Roessing, T. and Siebert, S. (2006) “Perception and assessment of left- and right-wing extremism by public opinion: An experimental study,” in 59th WAPOR Annual conference proceedings. WAPOR.Google Scholar
Rrustemi, A. (2020) Measuring the impact of the lifestory approach on preventing and countering violent extremism. Hague Centre for Strategic Studies.Google Scholar
Saby, J. and Marshall, P. (2012) “The utility of EEG band power analysis in the study of infancy and early childhood,” Developmental Neuropsychology, 37(3), pp. 253–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sageman, M. (2004) Understanding terror networks. University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sageman, M. (2008) Leaderless Jihad: Terror networks in the twenty-first century. University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saha, K., Chandrasekharan, E., and De Choudhury, M. (2019) “Prevalence and psychological effects of hateful speech in online college communities,” in Proceedings of the 10th ACM conference on web science (WebSci ‘19). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp. 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1145/3292522.3326032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salem, A., Reid, E., and Chen, H. (2008) “Multimedia content coding and analysis: Unraveling the content of jihadi extremist groups’ videos,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31(7), pp. 605–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandholtz, N., Langston, L., and Planty, M. (2013) Hate crime victimization, 2003–2011: Special report (NCJ 241291). Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/hcv0311.pdf (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Savage, S. and Fearon, P. (2021) “Increasing cognitive complexity and meta-awareness among at-risk youth in Bosnia-Herzegovina in order to reduce risk of extremism and interethnic tension,” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 27(2), pp. 225–239.Google Scholar
Saxe, R., Xiao, D. K., Kovacs, G., Perrett, D. I., and Kanwisher, N. (2004) “A region of right posterior superior temporal sulcus responds to observed intentional actions,” Neuropsychologia, 42(11), pp. 1435–1446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmid, A. (2013) Radicalization, de-radicalization, counter-radicalization: A conceptual discussion and literature review. ICCT Research Paper. International Centre for Counterterrorism.Google Scholar
Schumann, S., Salman, N. L., Clemmow, C., Gill, P. (2022) “Does cognitive inflexibility predict violent extremist behaviour intentions? A registered direct replication report of Zmigrod, Rentfrow, & Robbins, 2019,” Legal and Criminological Psychology, 27, pp. 329–353, https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schweppe, J. (2021) “What is a hate crime?” Cogent Social Sciences, 7(1), Article 1902643.Google Scholar
Shane, S. and Hubbard, B. (2014) “ISIS displaying a deft command of varied media,” The New York Times, 31 Aug. 2014, p. A1(L). Gale General OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A380813054/ITOF?u=unlv_main&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=5520b3fc (Accessed January 22, 2025).Google Scholar
Shafi, N. (2021) “The neuroscience of terrorism: A neuroscientific approach to understanding cognitive-behavioral traits of violent extremists,” The New School Psychology Bulletin, 18(1), pp. 1–18. www.nspb.net/index.php/nspb/article/view/335 (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Shen, L. (2010) “Mitigating psychological reactance: The role of message-induced empathy in persuasion,” Human Communication Research, 36(3), pp. 397–422.Google Scholar
Shen, L. (2014) “Antecedents to psychological reactance: The impact of threat, message frame, and choice,” Health Communication, 30(10), pp. 1–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Shen, L. (2019) “Features of empathy-arousing strategic messages,” Health Communication, 34(11), pp. 1329–1339. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2018.1485078.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shen, L. and Seung, S. Y. (2018) “On measures of message elaboration in narrative communication,” Communication Quarterly, 66(1), pp. 79–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherif, M. (1966) In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. Houghton-Mifflin.Google Scholar
Shortland, N. D. (2021) The psychology of terrorism. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.Google Scholar
Sidanius, J. and Pratto, F. (1999) Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Silber, M. and Bhatt, A. (2007) Radicalization in the West: The homegrown threat. New York Police Department. https://info.publicintelligence.net/NYPDradicalization.pdf (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Silke, A. (2003) Terrorists, victims, and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences. Wiley.Google Scholar
Simmel, G. (1955) Conflict and the web of group affiliations (Wolff, K. H. and Bendix, R., Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1908).Google Scholar
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O’Doherty, J., et al. (2006) “Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others,” Nature, 439(7075), pp. 466–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, A. (2010) “Cognitive empathy and emotional empathy in human behavior and evolution,” The Psychological Record, 56(1), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46283381_Cognitive_Empathy_and_Emotional_Empathy_in_Human_Behavior_and_Evolution.Google Scholar
Spaaij, R. (2012) Understanding lone wolf terrorism: Global patterns, motivations and prevention. Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Speckhard, A. (2008) “The emergence of female suicide terrorists,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31(11), pp. 995–1023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Springer, N. R. (2009) Patterns of Radicalization: Identifying the Markers and Warning Signs of Domestic Lone Wolf Terrorists in our Midst (Master’s thesis). Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. Retrieved from: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA514419.pdf.Google Scholar
START (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism) (2022) Global Terrorism Database 1970–2020 [data file]. www.start.umd.edu/gtd.Google Scholar
Staub, E. (1989) The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Staub, E. (2003) The psychology of good and evil: Why children, adults, and groups help and harm others. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Steinbach, M. (2016) “ISIL online: Countering terrorist radicalization and recruitment on the internet and social media,” Statement before the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, July 6. www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/isil-online-countering-terrorist-radicalization-and-recruitment-on-the-internet-and-social-media- (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. (2003) “A duplex theory of hate: Development and application to terrorism, massacres, and genocide,” Review of General Psychology, 7, pp. 299–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. (2005) “Understanding and combating hate,” in Sternberg, R. (ed.) The psychology of hate. American Psychological Association, pp. 37–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stremlau, N., McGeer, C., and Straub, M. (2024) “Deciphering digital hate: Assessing the evidence between online speech and offline violence in Africa,” Global Media Journal: German Edition, 13(2), https://www.globalmediajournal.de/index.php/gmj/article/view/280.Google Scholar
Strindberg, A. (2020) Social identity theory and the study of terrorism and violent extremism. Stockholm: Totalförsvarets forskningsinstitut.Google Scholar
Swisher, S., Martin, A., Ritchie, L., et al. (2016) “Orlando nightclub gunman made Facebook posts, texted his wife during standoff,” The Orlando Sentinel, June 16. www.orlandosentinel.com/news/pulse-orlando-nightclub-shooting/os-omar-mateen-thursday-update-20160616-story.html (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Taarnby, M. (2005) “Recruitment of Islamist terrorists in Europe: Trends and perspectives,” Research Report funded by the Danish Ministry of Justice, January 14, https://www.investigativeproject.org/documents/testimony/58.pdf.Google Scholar
Tabares, A. S. G. and Durán Palacio, N. M. (2021) “The protective role of empathy and emotional self-efficacy in predicting moral disengagement in adolescents separated from illegal armed groups,” Anuario de Psicología Jurídica, 31(1), pp. 127–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. (1986) “The social identity theory of intergroup behavior,” in Worchel, S. and Austin, W. G. (eds.) Psychology of intergroup relations. Nelson Hall, pp. 7–24.Google Scholar
Tausch, N., Becker, J. C., Spears, R., et al. (2011) “Explaining radical group behavior: Developing emotion and efficacy routes to normative and non-normative collective action,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1), pp. 129–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, D. M. and Moghaddam, F. M. (1994) Theories of intergroup relations: International social psychological perspectives (2nd ed.). Praeger.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. and Horgan, J. (2006) “A conceptual framework for addressing psychological process in the development of the terrorist,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 18(4), pp. 585–601.Google Scholar
The Covenant of the Hamas-Main Points (1988) Charter of Hamas. https://irp.fas.org/world/para/docs/880818a.htm (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Thompson, R. (2011)) “Radicalization and the use of social media,” Journal of Strategic Security, 4(4), pp. 167–190.Google Scholar
Tiihonen, J., Rautiainen, M. R., Ollila, H. M., et al. (2015). “Genetic background of extreme violent behavior. Molecular psychiatry,” 20(6), pp. 786–792. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2014.130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilly, C. (2003) The politics of collective violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tschantret, J. (2021) “The psychology of right-wing terrorism: A text-based personality analysis,” Psychology of Violence, 11(2), pp. 113–122.Google Scholar
Turner, J. H. (2009) “The sociology of emotions: Basic theoretical arguments,” Emotion Review, 1(4), pp. 340–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuttle Ross, S. (2002). “Understanding propaganda: The epistemic merit model and its application to art,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 36 (1), pp. 16–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuvblad, C. and Baker, L. A. (2011) “Human aggression across the lifespan: Genetic propensities and environmental moderators,” Advances in Genetics, 75, pp. 171–214.Google ScholarPubMed
Tyler, T. R. (1994) “Psychological models of the justice motive: Antecedents of distributive and procedural justice,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(5), pp. 850–863.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2018) Counter-terrorism module two-key issues: Radicalization and violent extremism. www.unodc.org/e4j/zh/terrorism/module-2/key-issues/radicalization-violent-extremism.html (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Vacca, J. R. (2019) Online terrorist propaganda, recruitment, and radicalization. CRC Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van den Bos, K. (2018) Why people radicalize: How unfairness judgments are used to fuel radical beliefs, extremist behaviors, and terrorism. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanderwert, R. E. and Nelson, C. A. (2014) “The use of near-infrared spectroscopy in the study of typical and atypical development,” Neuroimage, 85, pp. 264–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vertigans, S. (2011) The sociology of terrorism: People, places and processes (1st ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar
Vertigans, S. (2013). The sociology of terrorism: People, places and processes. Routledge.Google Scholar
Victoroff, J. (2005) “The mind of the terrorist: A review and critique of psychological approaches,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(1), pp. 3–42.Google Scholar
von Behr, I., Reding, A., Edwards, C., and Gribbon, L. (2013) “Radicalization in the digital era: The use of the internet in 15 cases of terrorism and extremism,” RAND Corporation. Retrieved from https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR453.html.Google Scholar
Webber, D., Babush, M., Schori-Eyal, N., et al. (2018) “The road to extremism: Field and experimental evidence that significance loss-induced need for closure fosters radicalization,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(2), pp. 270–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welch, T. (2018) “Theology, heroism, justice, and fear: An analysis of ISIS propaganda magazines Dabiq and Rumiyah,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 11(3), pp. 186–198.Google Scholar
Williams, C. A. (1990) “Bio-psychosocial elements of empathy: A multidimensional model,”,” Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 11(2), pp. 155–174.Google Scholar
Williams, M. L., Burnap, P., Javed, A., Liu, H., and Ozalp, S. (2020) “Hate in the machine: Anti-Black and anti-Muslim social media posts as predictors of offline racially and religiously aggravated crime,” The British Journal of Criminology, 60(1), pp. 93–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winkates, J. (2006) “Suicide terrorism: Martyrdom for organizational objectives,” Journal of Third World Studies, 23(1), pp. 87–115.Google Scholar
Winkler, C., Eldamanhoury, K., Dicker, A., and Lemieux, A. F. (2019) “Images of death and dying in ISIS media: A comparison of English and Arabic print publications,” Media, War & Conflict, 12(3), pp. 248–262, https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635217746200.Google Scholar
Winter, C., Neumann, P., Meleagrou-Hitchens, A., et al. (2020) “Online extremism: Research trends in internet activism, radicalization, and counter-strategies,” International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), 14, pp. 1–20.Google Scholar
Wintrobe, R. (2012) Rational extremism: The political economy of radicalism. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wojcieszak, M. and Kim, N. (2016) “How to improve attitudes toward disliked groups: The effects of narrative versus numerical evidence on political persuasion,” Communication Research, 43(6), pp. 785–809.Google Scholar
Yan, N., Wang, J., Liu, M., et al. (2008) “Designing a brain-computer interface device for neurofeedback using virtual environments,” Medical and Biological Engineering, 28(3), pp. 167–172.Google Scholar
Yoder, K. J. and Decety, J. (2014) “The good, the bad, and the just: Justice sensitivity predicts neural response during moral evaluation of actions performed by others,” Journal of Neuroscience, 34(12), pp. 4161–4166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoder, K. J., Ruby, K., Pape, R., and Decety, J. (2020). “EEG distinguishes heroic narratives in ISIS online video propaganda,” Scientific Reports, 10(1), p. 19593. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76711-0.Google ScholarPubMed
Zanolie, K. and Crone, E. A. (2018) Stevens’ handbook of experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience, 4th Ed. John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Zeiger, S. and Gyte, J. (2021) “Prevention of radicalization on social media and the internet [book],” in Schmid, , A. P. (ed.) The handbook of terrorism prevention and preparedness. ICCT Press, pp. 358–360. www.icct.nl/sites/default/files/2023-01/Chapter-12-Handbook_0.pdf (Accessed: August 21, 2024).Google Scholar
Zheng, W. L. and Lu, B. L. (2015) “Investigating critical frequency bands and channels for EEG-based emotion recognition with deep neural networks,” IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development, 7(3), pp. 162–175.Google Scholar
Zhong, W., Cristofori, I., Bulbulia, J., Krueger, F., and Grafman, J. (2017) “Biological and cognitive underpinnings of religious fundamentalism,” Neuropsychologia, 100, pp. 18–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zillmann, D. (2006) “Empathy: Affective reactivity to others’ emotional experiences,” in Bryant, J. and Vorderer, P. (eds.) Psychology of entertainment. Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 151–181.Google Scholar
Zmigrod, L. (2020) “The role of cognitive rigidity in political ideologies: Theory, evidence, and future directions,” Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 34, pp. 34–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zmigrod, L., Rentfrow, P. J., and Robbins, T. W. (2019) “Cognitive inflexibility predicts extremist attitudes,” Frontiers in Psychology, 10, p. 989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary materials for this Element are available here.